Culture Ancient Rus' (or Culture of Medieval Rus') - the culture of Rus' during the period of the Old Russian state from the moment of its formation to Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Writing and enlightenment

The existence of writing among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century, Cyril created the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic), in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, on the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which had long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, the alphabet arose, which was later called the Cyrillic alphabet. Subsequently, this easier and more convenient alphabet supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. Of significant importance was the fact that Christianity was accepted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship on national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in native language.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian church from the very beginning did not become a monopolist in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among layers of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Torzhok, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Staraya Ryazan, etc. These are letters, memos, educational exercises, etc. Writing, therefore, was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Inscriptions on handicraft products are often found. Ordinary townspeople left numerous notes on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities. The oldest surviving book in Rus' is the so-called. “Novgorod Psalter” of the first quarter of the 11th century: wooden tablets covered with wax with the texts of Psalms 75 and 76.

Most of the written monuments before the Mongol period were destroyed during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them has survived. The oldest of them are the “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izborniki” by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were made testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the well-established skills of “book construction” by that time.

The correspondence of books was carried out mainly in monasteries. The situation changed in the 12th century, when major cities The craft of “book describers” also arose. This speaks of the increasing literacy of the population and the increased need for books, which the monastery scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept book scribes with them, and some of them copied books themselves.

At the same time, the main centers of book production continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, where there were special workshops with permanent teams of copyists. They not only copied books, but also kept chronicles and created original literary works, translated foreign books. One of the leading centers of this activity was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in which a special literary movement developed that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Rus'. As chronicles testify, already in the 11th century in Rus', libraries with up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Needing literate people, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich organized the first schools. Literacy was not a privilege only of the ruling class; it also penetrated among the townspeople. Discovered in significant quantities in Novgorod, letters written on birch bark (from the 11th century) contain correspondence of ordinary townspeople; Inscriptions were also made on handicraft products.

Education was highly valued in ancient Russian society. In the literature of that time one can find many eulogies to the book, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching.”

Literature

With the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Rus' was introduced to book culture. The development of Russian writing gradually became the basis for the emergence of literature and was closely connected with Christianity. Despite the fact that writing was known in Russian lands earlier, it was only after the baptism of Rus' that it became widespread. It also received a basis in the form of a developed cultural tradition of Eastern Christianity. Extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of an improper tradition.

The original literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by great ideological richness and high artistic perfection. Her prominent representative was Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” dating from the mid-11th century. This work clearly demonstrates the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Rus'. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting “grace” (Christianity) with “law” (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God’s chosenness inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​​​transferring heavenly attention and favor from one chosen people to all humanity, the equality of all peoples.

An outstanding writer and historian was a monk Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. His “Reading” about the princes Boris and Gleb and the “Life of Theodosius,” valuable for the history of everyday life, have been preserved. “Reading” is written in a somewhat abstract style; edifying and ecclesiastical elements are strengthened in it. An outstanding monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” dates back to approximately 1113, preserved as part of later chronicle collections of the 14th-15th centuries. This work is compiled on the basis of earlier chronicles - historical works dedicated to the past of the Russian land. The author of the Tale, monk Nestor, managed to vividly and imaginatively tell about the emergence of Rus' and connect its history with the history of other countries. The main focus of the “Tale” is on events political history, the actions of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and way of life of the people are described in less detail. Clearly manifested in the chronicle and religious worldview its compiler: he sees the final cause of all events and human actions in the action of divine forces, “providence.” However, religious differences and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, the desire to identify real cause-and-effect relationships between events.

In turn, Theodosius, abbot of the Pechersk Monastery about whom Nestor also wrote, wrote several teachings and messages to Prince Izyaslav.

An outstanding writer was Vladimir Monomakh. His “Teaching” depicted perfect image the prince - a fair feudal ruler, touched upon pressing issues of our time: the need for strong princely power, unity in repelling the raids of nomads, etc. “Instruction” is a work of a secular nature. It is imbued with the spontaneity of human experiences, alien to abstraction and filled with real images and examples taken from life.

The question of princely power in the life of the state, its responsibilities and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises about the need for strong power as a condition for successfully fighting external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. These thoughts are embodied in one of the most talented works XII-XIII centuries, which has come down to us in two main editions “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniil writes with humor and sarcasm about the sad reality around him.

A special place in the literature of Ancient Rus' is occupied by “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” dating back to the end of the 12th century. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The description of this campaign serves the author only as a reason for thinking about the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the fight against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Rus' in princely civil strife, in the selfish policies of princes thirsting for personal glory. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. The author belonged to the druzhina environment. He constantly used the inherent concepts of “honor” and “glory,” but filled them with broader, patriotic content. The Tale of Igor’s Campaign embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of that time: live connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism.

Big influence Batu's invasion had an impact on Russian culture. The first work dedicated to the invasion is “The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” This word has not reached us completely. Also dedicated to Batu’s invasion is “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” - an integral part of a cycle of stories about the “miraculous” icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky.

Architecture

Until the end of the 10th century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. Significant skills in the field wooden architecture determined the rapid development of stone architecture and its originality. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone churches began, the construction principles of which were borrowed from Byzantium. Byzantine architects summoned to Kyiv passed on extensive experience to Russian masters construction culture Byzantium.

Large churches Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of Kievan Rus was established under the influence of Byzantine. Early Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood.

First stone church Kievan Rus was Tithe Church in Kyiv, the construction of which dates back to 989. The church was built as cathedral not far from the princely palace. In the first half of the 12th century. The church has undergone significant renovations. At this time, the southwestern corner of the temple was completely rebuilt; a powerful pylon supporting the wall appeared in front of the western facade. These activities most likely represented the restoration of the temple after a partial collapse due to an earthquake.

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in the 11th century, is one of the most significant architectural structures of this period. Initially, St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 chapters. It was surrounded on three sides by a two-tier gallery, and outside by an even wider single-tier one. The cathedral was built by Constantinople builders, with the participation of Kyiv craftsmen. At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, it was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style. The temple is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Painting

After the baptism of Rus', new types of monumental painting came from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Also, the iconographic canon was adopted from Byzantium, the immutability of which was strictly protected by the church. This predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who added to the existing iconography a system for arranging subjects in the interior of the temple, as well as a style of planar writing. The mosaics and frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral are known for their special beauty. They are executed in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of smalt shades and skillfully combined mosaics with frescoes. Of the mosaic works, the images of Christ Pantocrator in the central dome are especially significant. All images are permeated with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

Another unique monument of secular painting of Ancient Rus' is the painting of the walls of two towers Kyiv Sofia. They depict scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds, which somewhat distinguishes them from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes of Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

IN XII-XIII centuries Local characteristics began to appear in the painting of individual cultural centers. This is typical for the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Since the 12th century, a specific Novgorod style of monumental painting has been formed, which reaches a more complete expression in the paintings of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhi and especially Spas-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, unlike the Kyiv ones, there is a noticeable desire for simplification artistic techniques, to the expressive interpretation of iconographic types. In easel painting, Novgorod features were less pronounced.

In Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', fragments of frescoes from the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, were preserved before the Mongol period. Based on this material, researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The best preserved fresco of the Demetrievsky Cathedral depicting Last Judgment. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. Several large icons of the 12th - early 13th centuries belong to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The earliest of them is the “Our Lady of Bogolyubsk”, dating from the mid-12th century, stylistically close to the famous “Our Lady of Vladimir”, which is of Byzantine origin.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Ancient Rus'. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, spells, songs that were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included pre-wedding songs, funeral laments, songs at feasts and funeral feasts. Mythological tales reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs also became widespread. For many years, the church, trying to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against “filthy” customs, “demonic games” and “blasphemous things”. However, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, losing their initial religious meaning over time, and the rituals turned into folk games.

There were also forms of folklore that were not associated with the pagan cult. These include proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, and work songs. Authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Written monuments have preserved numerous traditions and legends about the ancestors of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the fight against foreigners. Thus, folk tales about the events of the 2nd-6th centuries were reflected in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

In the 9th century, a new epic genre arose - the heroic epic, which became the pinnacle of oral folk art and a consequence of the growth of national self-awareness. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. The epics are based on real historical events; the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. Thus, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles.

In turn, in the military class, in the princely-squad environment, there was its own oral poetry. The princes and their exploits were glorified in squad songs. The princely squads had their own “song makers” - professionals who composed “glory” songs in honor of the princes and their warriors.

Folklore continued to develop after the spread of written literature, remaining an important element of ancient Russian culture. In subsequent centuries, many writers and poets used the subjects of oral poetry and its arsenal artistic means and techniques. Also in Rus', the art of playing the harp, of which it is the birthplace, was widespread.

Arts and crafts

Kievan Rus was famous for its masters in applied, decorative arts, who were fluent in various techniques: filigree, enamel, granulation, niello, as evidenced by jewelry. It is no coincidence that the admiration of foreigners for the artistic creativity of our craftsmen was great. L. Lyubimov in his book “The Art of Ancient Rus'” gives a description of star-shaped silver colts from the Tver treasure of the 11th–12th centuries: “Six silver cones with balls are soldered to the ring with a semicircular shield. Each cone is soldered with 5000 tiny rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm from wire 0.02 cm thick! Only microphotography made it possible to establish these dimensions. But that's not all. The rings serve only as a pedestal for the grain, so each one has another silver grain with a diameter of 0.04 cm!” Jewelry was decorated with cloisonne enamel. The craftsmen used bright colors and skillfully selected colors. The drawings traced mythological pagan subjects and images, which were especially often used in applied art. They can be seen on carved wooden furniture, household utensils, gold-embroidered fabrics, and carved bone products, known in Western Europe as “Taurian carving”, “Rus carving”.

Cloth

Modern researchers have numerous evidence about how princes and boyars dressed. Verbal descriptions, images on icons, frescoes and miniatures, as well as fragments of fabrics from sarcophagi have been preserved. Various researchers in their works compared these materials with mentions of clothing in written documentary and narrative sources - chronicles, lives and various acts.

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries 3. Birch bark letters as evidence of the spread of literacy in cities and suburbs 1. Replacement of parchment with paper. 2. Monasteries still remain the centers of book learning - the origin of book printing Ivan Fedorov. The first book is “Apostle” - 1564, “Book of Hours”, Psalter Correspondence of I. the Terrible with A. Kurbsky. 3. Basic knowledge of salt making, history 1. Growth of printed materials. 2. The emergence of public and private libraries - the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy by Simeon of Polotsk - “Primer” by V. Burtsev, “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky 5. “Synopsis” - historical work by I. Gisel

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries Monomakh XII century 4. “The Tale of Igor’s Host” (about the events of 1185) 5. “The Word and Prayer” by D. Zatochnik (XII-XIII centuries) 1. Sophony of Ryazan “Zadonshchina” - end of the XIV century 2. The work of Epiphanius the Wise “Life of Sergius Radonezh" 3. Af. Nikitin "Walking beyond the three seas" 4. "Life of Al. Nevsky" (XIII-XIV centuries) 1. Sylvester "Domostroy" 2. A. Kurbsky "The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" 3. Encyclopedic work " Great Chetya-Menaion" under the direction of Macarius 4. Philotheus "Moscow - the Third Rome" 5. Ermolai Erasmus "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" 6. The emergence of the genre of journalism (Ivan Peresvetov and Abraham Palitsyn) 1. The emergence of the genre of historical story "The Tale of Seat of Azov" (1642) 2. The appearance of autobiographical works "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" 3. Satirical stories 4. The work of Simeon of Polotsk 5. Virshi - poetic works of love, everyday, satirical motifs

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries .Intercession on the Nerl Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1326; 1475 A. Fioravanti) 2. Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (house church of the royal family) 3. Faceted Chamber - M. Fryazin Place of ceremonial receptions 4. Trinity-Sergius Monastery -1337. 5. Andronikov Monastery (Moscow, 1427) 6. Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (Vologda 1397) 7. Solovetsky Monastery (Arkhangelsk) 1. Construction of China Town (F. Kon) 2. Wall of the White City (F. Kon) 3. Novodevichy Convent (in honor of the capture of Smolensk by Vasily III) 4. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye 1532 (in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible) 5. Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin A. Fryazin () Tomb of the Russian Tsars. 6. Kazan Cathedral. Barma. Postnik (in honor of the capture of Kazan by Ivan IV) 7. Bell tower of Ivan the Great Bon Fryazin. 1505 1. A new style appears - Naryshkin Baroque 2. Palace in Kolomenskoye Work of architects Bazhen Ogurtsov, Larion Ushakov, Chirin, Savin.

IX –XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI century XVII in painting 1. Iconography of Alimpius 1. Iconography of Theophanes the Greek. Painting of the Annunciation Cathedral. 2. The works of Andrei Rublev () 1. Iconography of Dioni. () Assumption Cathedral. 2. Stroganov school of painting 1. The emergence of the parsuna genre 2. Simeon Ushakov ()master of the armory travelers Af. Nikitin – research of Crimea, Turkey, India. “Walking across three seas” 1. Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev () exploration of Siberia, passage from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific, the strait between Asia and America 2. Khabarov Erofey Pavlovich () exploration of the Amur. 3. Atlasov Vladimir Vasilievich () - study of Kamchatka

Culture test. * A1 Indicate the earliest cathedral in terms of construction? 1) Sofia in Kyiv 2) Dmitrievsky in Vladimir 3) Sofia in Novgorod 4) Uspensky in Vladimir * A2. A popular genre in Rus', in which the narrative went from year to year: 1) chronicle 2) chronicle 3) hagiography 4) walking * A3. Read an excerpt from a literary work and indicate the year to which it refers: “It was not proper for us, brothers, to begin with ancient words the difficult story of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich... Let us begin, brothers, the story from ancient Vladimir to present-day Igor...” 1))) ) 1224 * A4. Under which ruler did a unique Kremlin ensemble emerge that still amazes with its beauty today? 1) Ivan Kalita 2) Dmitry Donskoy 3) Ivan III 4) Simeone Gordom * A5. Under which prince was the idea of ​​“Moscow – the third Rome” formed? 1) Ivan III 2) Ivan Kalita 3) Dmitry Donskoy 4) Vasily III

* A6. The author of “Walking Beyond the Three Seas” is 1) Aristotle Fioravanti 2) Fedor the horse 3) Aleviz Fryazin (New) 4) Marco Fryazin * A7. The temple built by Grozny in honor of the victory over Kazan 1) St. Basil's 2) Assumption Cathedral 3) Ivanovo Church 4) Church of the Ascension * A8. Name the artist who worked in the Armory in the 17th century 1) Georgy Zinoviev 2) Ivan Maximov 3) Tikhon Filatiev 4) Simon Ushakov * A9. Which buildings were built by the architect Kazakov a) Gubin House b) Golitsyn Hospital c) Winter Palace d) Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin e) Academy of Arts building f) Mikhailovsky Palace 1) ABG 2) AVG 3) BGE 4) AVD * A10. Who organized the first professional theater? 1) Volkov 2) Pashkevich 3) Sumarokov 4) Shlykova

* A 11 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the appearance of parsuna 2) the adoption of the law on compulsory primary education 3) the beginning of book printing 4) the opening of the Academy of Sciences * A 12 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the emergence of professional theater 2) transition to a new chronology 3) the beginning of book printing 4) the creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy * A13 “The Glades lived separately in those days... and there were three brothers - Khoriv, ​​Shchek, Kiy and their sister - Lybid. And they built a city and named it in honor of their brother - Kiev ... " 2) Volkov 3) Radishchev 4) Polzunov * A 15 The creator of the first steam engine is considered to be 1) Biron 2) Volkov 3) Polzunov 4) Rokotov * A 16 In ancient Russian literature, “Life” was called 1) a weather record of events 2) a description of the activities of Christian saints 3) teachings of princes to their heirs 4) folk epic tales

* A 17 Zhivopisnoe piece of art small sizes were called 1) stained glass 2) headband 3) filigree 4) miniature * A 18 Russian portrait painter of the 18th century 1) Rokotov 2) Kiprensky 3) Bryullov 4) Voronikhin * A 19 The appearance of book printing in Russia is associated with the name of 1) Simeon Ushakov 2 ) Ivan Peresvetov 3) Andrei Kurbsky 4) Ivan Fedorov * A 20 Russian architects of the 18th century 1) Tatishchev, Shcherbakov 2) Kazakov, Bazhenov 3) Shubin, Argunov 4) Horse, Chokhov * A 21 The navigator who discovered the strait between Asia and America 1 ) Bering 2) Poyarkov 3) Ushakov 4) Nakhimov * A 22 The names of Theophanes the Greek, Dionysius, Simeon Ushakov are associated with the development of 1) jewelry art 2) architecture 3) chronicle writing 4) icon painting *

B1 Arrange in chronological order the appearance of historical monuments * A) St. Basil's Cathedral b) "The Tale of Bygone Years" c) "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" d) the white stone Kremlin in Moscow * B2 Match * A) Daniil Zatochnik 1) "Zadonshchina" * B) Sophony Ryazanets 2) “Prayer” * C) Nestor 3) “Teaching to Children” * D) Vladimir Monomakh 4) “The Tale of Bygone Years” 5) “Domostroy” * Match: * A) Marco Fryazin 1) “Trinity” * B) Andrei Rublev 2) Chamber of Facets * C) Aristotle Fioravanti 3) Archangel Cathedral * D) Aleviz Novy Fryazin 4) Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin 5) Kazan Cathedral

* References: * 1. History from ancient times to the end of the 18th century, textbook for universities. Ed. A.N. Sakharov. M: Ast., 2003 * 2.V.N. Alexandrov History of Russian Art, Minsk, 2007 * 3.L. A. Belyaev. Fortresses and weapons of Eastern Europe. M: "Book House",

Slide 1

Slide 2

Slide 3

Slide 4

Slide 5

Slide 6

Slide 7

Slide 8

Slide 9

Slide 10

Slide 11

Slide 12

Slide 13

Slide 14

Slide 15

Slide 16

Slide 17

Slide 18

Slide 19

Slide 20

Slide 21

Slide 22

Slide 23

Slide 24

Slide 25

Slide 26

Achievements and cultural values ​​of Kievan Rus

The most important achievement of the culture of Kievan Rus is the development of the vast space of the north-east of Europe, the establishment of agriculture here, the transformation of the natural landscape, giving it a cultural, civilized appearance: the construction of new cities - centers of culture, laying roads, erecting bridges, paths connecting the most remote corners of the once dense, "untrodden" forests with cultural centers.

Another, no less important, historical value is the adoption of Orthodoxy and the transformation of pagan culture. Orthodoxy played a dual role in the development of Russian culture. On the one hand, it largely eradicates the heritage of pagan Rus', impoverishes the historical memory of the people, and makes the complex world of its mythological images disappear into oblivion. But its progressive function is also undoubted, especially in the initial stages of its development. During the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it was Orthodoxy that was the spiritual center that made it possible to preserve the cultural identity of Rus', organize a moral resistance to the conquerors, and put forward the goals of the national Renaissance. But as the culture of modern times develops, the role of Orthodoxy declines; it is replaced by new forms of cultural creativity, centers of innovative change.

With Orthodoxy came stone temple construction to Rus'. One of the first Christian churches was built in Pskov by Princess Olga around 965, that is, even before the baptism of Rus', and was dedicated to the Divine Trinity. Therefore, Pskov was sometimes called the “House of the Holy Trinity”, and Novgorod - the “House of Saint Sophia”. In Kyiv, back in 952, a wooden Sophia appeared, erected by Olga; it burned down in 1016 and in its place, already under Yaroslav the Wise, a stone Sophia was built. It was “about 13 versions” - about 13 chapters, domes, as a symbol of the “Christ and Apostolic Church” (1 + 12 apostles). Many temples from the Kievan Rus period burned down and were destroyed during the Mongol invasion. Among the surviving ones can be named the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (Fig. 14.8), Demetrius Cathedral (1194-1197). Covered with intricate stone carvings, out of 566 images, Demetrius Cathedral has only 46 directly related to Christian themes. This indicates that “dual faith” still persisted in Rus' for a long time. Official “Orthodoxy” and real “paganism” coexisted in the same cultural monuments. The cultural development of civilization is impossible without the advent of writing, the spread of literacy, and book art. The Slavs had their own system for recording information long before Orthodoxy. This finds its expression in the vocabulary of the language. We still say: “Tie a knot for memory,” forgetting that this “catchphrase” expression once reflected a real cultural achievement - a method of “knotting” information, known to other peoples. In particular, among the Incas, with the help of such a system, called “khipu,” complex historical and literary texts. Another expression reflecting the way information is conveyed is the proverb “Cut it on your nose.” The “nose” in this case is not a part of the face, but a tablet that was carried with them to mark the memory of certain facts.

There is evidence that another recording system was used, known as “traits and cuts”, or Slavic runes. The texts of agreements concluded with the Greeks were also written in Russian. The merit of Orthodoxy, undoubtedly, was the assistance that Byzantium provided in giving Russian writing - the Glagolitic alphabet - perfect forms, creating a "Cyrillic" alphabet that met the needs of the language of that time, and the sound composition of the Slavic language, and even modern language norms. Constantine the Philosopher (Cyril) and Methodius, even before the creation of their alphabet, which was called the “Cyrillic alphabet,” saw in Korsun some “Rusyn” had a book written in “Russian” characters, which, however, were understandable to Cyril.

The creation of modern writing contributed to the formation of a single Russian language. Russian as a national language began to emerge very early. It originates from the “Slovenian”, “Slavic” language. Kievan Rus, being a multi-tribal formation, had one state language - “Russian”, also known as “Slovenian”.

“...and the Slovenian language and the Russian language are the same... and even in the glades they call each other, but there is no Slovenian speech,” testifies “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Thus, this language existed among the Polyans, in Polyansky Kyiv, and Russian Kyiv continues to develop and improve it. The term “Russian” in relation to the language was recorded in chronicles in the 11th century. When comparing ethnic groups and languages, we must remember that they were identified at that time. Therefore, when the chronicle said that “Slavs” and “Rus” are one language, this meant that they were one people. Let us remember that A.S. Pushkin also wrote: “and he will name... every language that exists in it, and the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...” The Russian language was the single, common, state language of Kievan Rus. And today we can read texts written down more than 1000 years ago.

The Russian language developed over a vast territory from the Carpathians to the Volga; vocabulary, spelling, and grammar were common. Back in the 13th century. French was understandable to the population of Ile-de-France, and the vast outskirts of France spoke Catalan, Basque, Breton, Flemish, and Provençal. Northern and southern Germans did not understand each other even in the 19th century. Bismarck created an army where the soldiers spoke different languages.

For writing, the Russians used a specific material - birch bark. Birch bark "letters" were found in Novgorod (many), Smolensk (10), Vitebsk (1), Pskov (3), Staraya Russa (13), Mstislavl, on Castle Hill in the Mogilev region. It should be noted that birch bark was originally used by Indo-Europeans for writing and drawings. Thus, among the Aryans, the “Veda of Witchcraft”, “Atharvaveda”, was written on birch bark.

In Kievan Rus, Russian was the only language - spoken and liturgical, written and oral, church and state, while in Western Europe the church imposed Latin, which hampered the development of language and culture and led to protests everywhere. Thus, the “Ostromir Gospel” was recorded in 1050-1057, and created even earlier and in Russian. But the first literary work, also translated into Polish from Latin - “The Psalter of Queen Jadwiga”, appeared in Poland only around 1400. Only in the 16th century. National literature began to emerge in Poland. And the blame for this falls on Catholicism: the Catholic Church claimed that “only three languages ​​are known in which it is worthy to praise God in books: Hebrew, Greek and Latin...” Kirill - Konstantin the Philosopher answered this: “doesn’t God send rain?” the same for everyone? And also, doesn’t the sun shine for everyone? And don’t we all come into being the same? And aren’t you ashamed, recognizing only three languages ​​and commanding that all other peoples and tribes be blind and deaf? Explain to me, do you think "Are you God powerless, unable to give all this, or dependent and therefore unwilling (to give all this)?"

The early formation of a single language gave rise to an extensive Russian literature. It was preceded by rich folk art and the creation of epics. In the IX-X centuries. epics were created about Mikhail Potok, about Ilya Muromets, about Stavr Godinovich, about Danil Lovchanin, about the Danube, about Ivan Godinovich, about Volga and Mikul, about Dobrynya, about the marriage of Vladimir, etc. No nation knows such a variety of epics in this time, their abundance. On the one hand, they preserve the memory of more ancient times in the history of the Slavs; on the other hand, this is creativity that reflects real, relevant history. Russian epics are characterized by a number of features.

In epics, church and Orthodox influence is minimal. They are full of pagan symbols, heroes, images. They are dominated by secular, worldly content, rather than ecclesiastical, sacred content.

The epics have been preserved in oral tradition for almost 1000 years.

The epic is characterized not only by the glorification of physical power, strength, and “valid prowess.” The main thing in them is morality, the ethical value of a person’s act, his kindness, compassion, empathy.

In contrast to this, for example, “The Tale of the Nibelungs”, “The Elder Edda” are indifferent to morality, they are sub-moral, sub-moral. The epics, describing the same historical time as the sagas, and sometimes even more ancient - for example, "Svyatogor", are fundamentally different from the German epic in their moral content, ethical assessments and judgments. Being created at the same historical time, they differ culturally - they are moral. Moral from a popular point of view. Although they are full of military clashes, all the battles fought by the epic heroes are defensive. This is not surprising, given that, according to the calculations of V. O. Klyuchevsky, from 1228 to 1462. Rus' withstood 160 external wars and raids.

Rich artistic oral creativity contributed to the formation of Russian literature. It was distinguished by a number of features, first of all, it was based on the common Russian language. This allowed her to create the greatest literary works in the shortest possible time: “The Tale of Law, Grace and Truth” by Hilarion, “The Tale of Bygone Years” and “The Life of Theodosius” by Nestor, “Teaching the Children” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale” by Daniil Zatochnik, “The Tale of Igor's regiment" by Igor, son of Svyatoslavl, grandson of Olgov, "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land" and many others.

During late Middle Ages Russian literature has been enriched by new wonderful works: “Zadonshchina” by Safonia, “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, works by Ivan the Terrible (“Correspondence with Kurbsky”), Ivan Peresvet and Avvakum Petrov, “The Tale of the Mountain” Misfortune."

Comparison and juxtaposition of these works shows that these are the fruits of a single literary process, which was not interrupted for almost a millennium, but only slowed down during the Mongol yoke.

Russian literature very early realized the commonality of the Russian land, the Russian people. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” there are no longer any tribal references, but “Russian Land” is mentioned 20 times! This characteristic Russian literature, the main thing in it is the fate of the country, land, homeland and people. “The Russian land is bright and beautifully decorated!” We will not find this in any European literature! “Patriotism” is the original theme, a feature of Russian culture. Only in 1353 did Petrarch appear with a hymn addressed to Italy as the Motherland.

In the 12th century. Kirill Turovsky writes:

"The height of heaven has not been measured,

The depths of hell have not been tested..."

In the 18th century Kirill Danilov will continue the same thought and repeat and modify the same theme:

"Is it the height, the height under heaven,

Depth, depth of the Akyan-sea,

Wide expanse throughout the earth,

Deep are the pools of the Dnieper..."

No people knew such a developed system of chronicles. The first chronicle records appeared around 872 in Kyiv. They are characterized by an anti-Varangian tendency and the absence of a Christian element. The First Chronicles are based on oral traditions, Slavic myths, and epic tales. The pagan element dominates in them. In particular, the Chronicle contains a story about the Prophetic Oleg and his death, which is predicted not by a sorcerer, but by a “magician,” that is, a shaman.

Chronicle of the 10th century. falls into two forms: secular and ecclesiastical. In secular chronicles the following stand out:

“tales”, tales about princes: Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk and others, that is, this is a knightly cycle (these tales are a continuation of the Slavic “glories”);

chronicles - chronicles of affairs: campaigns, invasions, princely meetings, etc.;

texts of contracts.

The chronicle appears where the state and civilization arise. What is the difference between the Russian chronicle? In universality, the chronicle is a collection of diverse knowledge; they included information from myths, history, fiction, and oral folk art. In Rus', chronicles were kept on a large scale; there were both princely and church chronicles, and chronicles were kept not only in princely cities, but also in destinies. Thus, the chronicle was a comprehensive, unified, ubiquitous phenomenon in Rus'.

Many chronicles burned down and were lost during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Others died during fires, which were common in Rus'. Thus, on the estate of V.N. Tatishchev, 5 chronicles burned down, including Raskolnichya and Galitsyn. In 1812, the unique Trinity Chronicle was lost in a fire in Moscow, and Musin-Pushkin’s manuscripts, including the manuscript of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” were destroyed at the same time.

Few cultural objects of Ancient Rus' have reached us. Russian swords XI-XIII centuries. Only 183 have survived, and even fewer helmets, although they were very carefully preserved. The fate of books and icons is even more difficult: they most often perished in fires that arose either by accident or as a result of military operations. In 1382, during Tokhtamysh’s invasion of Moscow, the Kremlin churches were filled “to the brim,” that is, to the top, to the roof, with books and icons - everything burned down. In 1547, almost all of Moscow burned down, in 1612 Moscow was burned by the Poles, and in 1812 by the French. But also in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. the monks burned manuscripts like unnecessary rubbish, drowned them in Volkhov, and rotted in damp basements.

At the same time, what we managed to preserve, find, and study is admirable. In the State Historical Museum In Moscow there is a frame with a cross-shaped slot, which experts consider the height of perfection of medieval Russian jewelry technology. Here is how B. A. Rybakov describes it: “Between twelve stones set in gold, the master arranged a whole flower garden of miniature gold flowers, planted on spiral springs of 4-5 turns, soldered only at one end to the plate. The spiral stems were made of ribbed gold wire. The flowers have five carefully made petals, figuratively cut and soldered to the pistil. In a space of 0.25 cm2, the Ryazan master managed to plant from 7 to 10 golden flowers, which swayed on their spiral stems at the level of purple gems."

Influence
By the time of the adoption of Christianity, Rus' was already a country with a distinctive culture. She grew up in the fertile soil of local cultures East Slavic tribes and constantly developed contacts with the cultures of other countries, primarily Byzantium, Bulgaria, the countries of Central Europe, Scandinavia, the Khazar Kaganate and the Arab East.

Crafts and wood construction techniques have reached a high level. In the era of transition from pre-class society to feudal, like other European peoples, epic. Its plots were preserved mainly in epics written down many centuries later. By the 9th-10th centuries. refers to the appearance of plots from such epics as “Mikhailo Potok”, “Danube”, “Volga and Mikula”. The end of the 10th century was especially fruitful for the formation of the epic epic. - era of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. His reign became the “epic time” of Russian epics, and the prince himself became a generalized image of the ruler of Rus'. By the end of the 10th century. refers to the appearance of epics whose heroes were Dobrynya Nikitich (his prototype was Vladimir Svyatoslavich’s maternal uncle, Dobrynya, who was the prince’s mentor and adviser in his youth) and Ilya Muromets.

No later than the end of the 9th beginning of the 10th century. Slavic languages ​​are spreading in Rus' alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Created in the second half of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril and Methodius and initially spreading in the Western Slavic state - Great Moravia, they soon penetrated into Bulgaria and Rus'. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911.

Synthesis of Slavic pre-Christian culture with the cultural layer that came to Rus' with the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium and Bulgaria and introduced the country to the Byzantine and Slavic Christian cultures, and through them - to the cultures of antiquity and the Middle East, created the phenomenon of Russian medieval culture. Its originality and high level were largely due to its existence as a language church service and as a result of this, the emergence as a literary Slavic language, understandable to the entire population (unlike Western Europe and Slavic countries who converted to Catholicism, where the language of church services was Latin, a language unfamiliar to the majority of the population and, as a result, early medieval literature was predominantly Latin).

Development of culture in the 11th century. was caused by the rapid growth of various crafts and trade, revitalization of foreign trade and interstate relations. It became the starting point and primary basis of the culture of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, and influenced the culture of neighboring peoples.

IN literature With some convention, several directions can be distinguished in Kievan Rus: socio-political; artistic and secular; world (translated) literature. But the boundaries of genres were often elusive and blurred. In socio-political literature, chronicle writing played the most significant role. No later than the beginning of the 11th century. The first chronicles began to be compiled in Kyiv and Novgorod. Gradually growing, they by the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. compiled a systematic collection, finally edited and literary processed by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. The code is known as “The Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL). PVL is called an encyclopedia of ancient Russian life of the 9th - 11th centuries, giving an idea not only of the history of Rus', but also of its language, religion, worldview, scientific knowledge, art, etc. Later, chronicles began to be compiled in other large cities. In addition to chronicles, especially famous are such works of socio-political direction as “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion (11th century); the lives of the first Russian “saints” Boris and Gleb (XI century); the famous “Instruction to Children” by Vladimir Monomakh (XII century).

The most famous works fiction of Kievan Rus are the works of Kirill Turovsky and Kliment Smolyatich, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik and “The Tale of Igor’s Host”.

It was also popular in Rus' world literature - theological works, natural science treatises, Greek novels, Byzantine chronicles were translated. The latter, in particular, include the translation of the Byzantine “Chronicle of George Amartol”.

In the XI - early XII centuries. development continued epic genre. The plot of the epic "Nightingale Budimirovich" is connected with the matchmaking of the Norwegian king Harald to the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Elizabeth. A number of epic songs arose in connection with the fight against Polovtsian raids at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. The image of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The era of Monomakh dates back to the appearance of the cycle of epics about Alyosha Popovich, the epic "Stavr Godinovich".

Reached a high level in Rus' education, which was received mainly at monasteries. The picture of literacy even among ordinary citizens is painted by frequent finds of birch bark letters at archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk and other cities.

Development has reached outstanding scope stone architecture, whose monuments have been preserved in Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Polotsk and many other cities. With the introduction of Christianity, Russian architecture was influenced by Byzantium, but its own architectural traditions were gradually developed. From the end of the 10th century. The remains of the Decimal Church in Kyiv have reached us. In Vladimir in 1158 - 1161. the majestic and austere Assumption Cathedral was erected; Not far from Bogolyubov, a small, extremely elegant Church of the Intercession on the Nerl was erected. TO the best works Russian architecture includes the Cathedral of the Savior in Chernigov, the churches of Sofia in Novgorod, and the Golden Gate in Vladimir.

The high development of the culture of pre-Mongol Rus' is evidenced by painting XI - early XIII centuries. If the painting of Novgorod and Pskov masters expressed the democratic traditions of the Free City and was distinguished by simplicity and strict laconicism of writing, then the masters of Vladimir and Suzdal retained Byzantine sophistication in their works, softening asceticism with lyricism iconographic images. Under Byzantine influence, its main forms developed here: mosaics, miniatures, icon painting, frescoes.

Reached a brilliant peak applied arts , especially in the use of such original techniques as niello, cloisonné, granulation, filigree, sometimes used simultaneously. Oral folk art developed steadily - the epic epic glorified heroism in battle and enterprise in business.

On the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, ancient Russian culture reached high level, comparable to the best examples of European and world culture of that time and actively interacted with it.