Mariupol State University

Essay

On the topic: The personality of the new Renaissance man

Performed: 2nd year student

Part-time study

Specialties

« Language and Literature (English)

Shchukina Anna

Plan

Introduction

1 Background of the Renaissance. Three stages of cultural development in the era

Renaissance…………………………………………………………………………………………

2 Features of the Renaissance……………………………………………

2.1 Periods of the Renaissance………………………………………………………

2.2 The dawn of literature……………………………………………………….

2.3 General features of the Renaissance in Europe……………………………

3.Renaissance architecture……………………………………………………………………

3.1 Music………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………

Bibliography…………………………………………………………..

Introduction

Renaissance, or Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento; from “ri” - “again” or “born again”) is an era in the cultural history of Europe, which replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. The approximate chronological framework of the era is the beginning of the 14th - the last quarter of the 16th centuries and in some cases - the first decades of the 17th century (for example, in England and, especially, in Spain). A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities). Interest in ancient culture appears, its “revival,” as it were, occurs - and this is how the term appeared.

Term Renaissance found already in Italian humanists, for example, in Giorgio Vasari. In its modern meaning, the term was introduced into use by the 19th century French historian Jules Michelet. Nowadays, the term Renaissance has become a metaphor for cultural flourishing: for example, the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. Contents [remove]

general characteristics

"Vitruvian Man" by Leonardo da Vinci

A new cultural paradigm arose as a result of fundamental changes in social relations in Europe.

The growth of city-republics led to an increase in the influence of classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and craftsmen, merchants, bankers.

The hierarchical system of values ​​created by the medieval, largely church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit were alien to all of them. This led to the emergence of humanism - a socio-philosophical movement that considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for evaluating public institutions.

Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The new worldview turned to antiquity, seeing in it an example of humanistic, non-ascetic relations. The invention of printing in the mid-15th century played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

The Renaissance arose in Italy, where its first signs were noticeable back in the 13th and XIV centuries(in the activities of the Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna and others families), but it was firmly established only in the 20s of the 15th century. In France, Germany and other countries this movement began much later. By the end of the 15th century it reached its peak. In the 16th century, a crisis of Renaissance ideas was brewing, resulting in the emergence of Mannerism and Baroque.

Background of the Renaissance. Three stages of cultural development during the Renaissance

1. XIV - beginning XV centuries characterized by the stratification and collapse of the medieval common cultural zone: this means that, for example, in Spain and France the iron regime of a powerful feudal state is created, and in Italy capital is rapidly growing. In Italy itself, along with Petrarch and Boccaccio, coexists the most archaic, as if he came out of some tenth century, Franco Sacchetti. Yes, the same Petrarch, the creator of new poetry, bows to the obsolete pillars of scholasticism at the University of Paris.

Moreover, if we take Europe as a whole, we can see how economic relations are reviving, while cultural relations, on the contrary, are freezing. Outside of Italy, there is still no awareness of one’s time as a turning point in history, and the very idea of ​​reviving the ancient classics is also absent, although interest in antiquity is increasing. Interest in one’s own creativity and national traditions, folklore, and finally language is also increasing.

Stage 2 begins in the mid-15th century. Three important events take place here: the fall of Byzantium with all the ensuing consequences for Europe; the end of the Hundred Years' War with a complete reorientation of European politics and the invention of printing.

With the latest development, the authority of Italian culture is rapidly becoming universal. The ideas of humanism and revival, created by the titanic efforts of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, are picked up by representatives of other European countries. Latin penetrates into the darkest corners of the Old World, for example, Scandinavia. The old impregnable fortress of feudal-church ideology is being destroyed, giving way to the ideology of humanism, confirmed not only by literature and art, but also by the abundance of all kinds of scientific discoveries and the expansion of geographical horizons. And not just a man, but a free man forever is glorified by the humanistic harmony of Botticelli, Leonardo, Raphael, Dürer, Ariosto, Early Michelangelo, Rabelais, and the Pleiades poets. T. More creates his famous humanistic “utopia”. Political writers Machiavelli and Guicciardini reveal to the era the laws of historical development. Philosophers Ficino, Mirandolla, la Rama are returning interest in Plato. Lorenzo Valla, Deperrier, Luther reconsider religious dogmas. Finally, Europe was shaken by the peasant war in Germany and the Dutch revolution. Here we begin the construction of the state by annexing Novgorod (1478), Tver (1485) to Moscow, the famous “Domostroy” is being created, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim Grek, Skaryna are working.

During this period, a new system of literary genres emerged, developing to the exemplary ones that appeared at the turn of the 13th century. In Sicily, the sonnet is transformed and takes on its final form, the ancient odes, elegies, and epigrams.

As for completely new, original genres, this is, first of all, dramaturgy, in which, apparently, except for the stage and the idea itself, nothing remains from antiquity (yet!!), then journalism is a completely new genre, if, Of course, do not take into account the publicists and conversationalists of antiquity: Socrates and subsequent sophists. Journalism, by the way, was mastered primarily by the Frenchman Montaigne and called by him “essay,” which means “experience,” as little else will have to do with the court in Russia, in Russian literature: from Radishchev to Solzhenitsyn.

During this period, prose came to the fore in literature, the real birth of the novel, relatively speaking, realistic: Rabelais, Nash, Cervantes, Aleman, the short story reached its peak: Boccaccio, Masuccio, Margarita of Navarre, and finally memoirs appeared. Not a confession, but the everyday notes of a private person about himself, devoid of any ecstatic confession: Cellini, Brantôme.

It was during this period that qualitative features inherent only to them were consolidated in national literatures: for example, a certain rationalism and sense of proportion combined with subtle humor, typical of French literature.

The writer begins to realize himself not only as a person, but also as a creator. He places a high purpose on his mission. It was during this period that the pan-European authority of an individual became possible, as enjoyed, for example, by Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Stage 3 takes place in an aggravated and complicated political and ideological situation: from the middle of the 16th century. A wave of Counter-Reformation is sweeping across Europe. Spain becomes a stronghold of Catholicism and feudalism, in Italy free cities turn into small monarchies, the power of princes in Germany is strengthened, the “Index of Forbidden Books” is introduced, the Jesuits expand their activities, the Inquisition is established, France is torn apart by the struggle of rival feudal groups during the period of religious wars.

Skepticism and even stoicism are returning from the depths of centuries to replace the opened horizons and prospects, hopes and dreams. The works of Montaigne, Camões, Tasso, the late Michelangelo, Cervantes, and Shakespeare are colored with deep tragic tones.

Writers, artists and philosophers synthesize what they have experienced, not only personally, but throughout the era as a whole, summarize the results, and describe the decline. The classical Renaissance is being replaced by a bizarre, minor, broken mannerism.

Read also:

XIV-XV century. A new, turbulent era begins in European countries - the Renaissance (Renaissance - from the French Renaissanse). The beginning of the era is associated with the liberation of man from feudal-serfdom, the development of sciences, arts and crafts.

The Renaissance began in Italy and continued its development in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. The Late Renaissance dates from the mid-16th to the 1690s.

The influence of the church on the life of society has weakened, interest in antiquity is being revived with its attention to the individual, his freedom and development opportunities. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of literacy among the population, the growth of education, the development of sciences and arts, including fiction. The bourgeoisie was not satisfied religious worldview, which dominated the Middle Ages, and created a new, secular science based on the study of nature and the heritage of ancient writers. Thus began the “revival” of ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) science and philosophy. Scientists began to search for and study ancient literary monuments stored in libraries.

Writers and artists appeared who dared to speak out against the church. They were convinced: the greatest value on earth is man, and all his interests should be focused on earthly life, on living it fully, happily and meaningfully. Such people who dedicated their art to people began to be called humanists.

Renaissance literature is characterized by humanistic ideals. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called “Renaissance realism” (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist. The works of the Renaissance give us an answer to the question about the complexity and importance of the affirmation of the human personality, its creative and effective beginning.

The works of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes express a new understanding of life as a person who rejects the slavish obedience preached by the church. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the richness of his soul and mind. The realism of the Renaissance is characterized by the scale of images (Hamlet, King Lear), poeticization of the image, the ability to have great feelings and at the same time the high intensity of the tragic conflict (Romeo and Juliet), reflecting the collision of a person with forces hostile to him.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. Giovanni Boccaccio becomes the legislator of a new genre - the short story, which is called the Renaissance short story. This genre* was born from a feeling of wonder at the inexhaustibility of the world and the unpredictability of man and his actions, characteristic of the Renaissance.

In poetry it becomes most characteristic shape sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a specific rhyme pattern).

Renaissance is... Renaissance

Dramaturgy is receiving great development. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works and creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("In Praise of Stupidity") are also widely known.

Among the writers of that time were crowned heads. Duke Lorenzo de' Medici writes poetry, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection Heptameron.

In the fine arts of the Renaissance, man appeared as the most beautiful creation of nature, strong and perfect, angry and gentle, thoughtful and cheerful.

The world of Renaissance man is most clearly represented in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, painted by Michelangelo. Biblical scenes form the vault of the chapel. Their main motive is the creation of the world and man. These frescoes are full of grandeur and tenderness. On the altar wall there is a fresco " Last Judgment", which was created in 1537–1541. Here Michelangelo sees in man not the "crown of creation", but Christ is represented as angry and punishing. The ceiling and altar wall of the Sistine Chapel represent a clash of possibility and reality, the sublimity of the plan and the tragedy of its implementation. " The Last Judgment" is considered the work that completed the Renaissance era in art.

Features of Renaissance culture

The Renaissance is a transitional era from the Middle Ages to the New Age from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The Renaissance, or Renaissance, got its name because of the revival of the most important principles of the spiritual culture of antiquity that began during this period.

Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French. renaissance - Renaissance) is a cultural and historical era that marks the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age.

This period in the history of Western European civilization is exceptional in terms of the unprecedented rise and scale of cultural phenomena in the life of all European countries. Along with a truly cultural revolution, and often on the basis of the cultural achievements of the Renaissance, deep socio-economic processes took place that determined the forms of new economic and social relations within the framework of the emerging market system. The philosophy of humanism, opposed to the scholastic worldview of the Middle Ages, the cult of freedom of mind, egocentrism - as opposed to the feudal class order, a largely secular, materialistic understanding of the surrounding reality - these and other most important achievements of the culture of the Renaissance formed the foundation of the culture of modern Western civilization.

It was full of extraordinary events and presented by brilliant creators. The term “Renaissance” was introduced by G. Vasari, a famous painter, architect and art historian, to designate the period of Italian art as a time of revival of antiquity. The culture of the Renaissance had a distinctly artistic character and was generally oriented towards art, where the cult of the artist-creator occupied a central place. The artist imitates not just God's creations, but divine creativity itself. A person begins to look for a fulcrum in himself - in his soul, body, physicality (the cult of beauty - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael). In this era, the versatility of development and talent was especially revered, and the special significance of man and his creative activity was revealed.

New economic relations contributed to the emergence of spiritual opposition to feudalism as a way of life and the dominant way of thinking.

Renaissance

Technical inventions and scientific discoveries enriched labor with new, more effective methods of action (the spinning wheel appeared, the weaving machine was improved, blast furnace metallurgy was invented, etc.). The use of gunpowder and the creation of firearms revolutionized military affairs, which negated the importance of knighthood as a branch of the military and as a feudal class. The birth of printing contributed to the development of humanitarian culture in Europe. The use of a compass significantly increased the possibilities of navigation, and the network of water trade connections rapidly expanded. They were especially intense in the Mediterranean - it is not surprising that it was in Italian cities that the first manufactories arose as a step in the transition from craft to the capitalist mode of production. Thus, the main prerequisites for cultural development during the Renaissance were the crisis of feudalism, the improvement of tools and production relations, the development of crafts and trade, an increase in the level of education, the crisis of the church, geographical and scientific and technical discoveries.

New worldview

A powerful surge in the cultural life of many European countries, which occurred mainly in the 14th - 16th centuries, and in Italy began in the 13th century, is commonly called the era of the Renaissance (Renaissance). Initially, a new phenomenon in European cultural life looked like a return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture in the field of science, philosophy, literature, art, a return to classical “golden Latin”. Thus, in Italy, manuscripts of ancient writers were sought, works of ancient sculpture and architecture were retrieved from oblivion .

But it would be wrong to interpret the Renaissance as a simple return to antiquity, because its representatives did not discard the achievements at all medieval culture and were critical of the ancient heritage. The phenomenon of the Renaissance is a very multifaceted phenomenon in the cultural development of Europe, the core of which was a new worldview, a new self-awareness of man. In contrast to the ancient view of the world around us, in which man is called upon to learn from nature, Renaissance thinkers believed that man, endowed by God with free will, is the creator of himself and thereby stands out from nature. This understanding of the essence of man not only differs from the ancient one, but also conflicts with the postulates of medieval theology. The focus of Renaissance thinkers was on man, and not on God, as the highest measure of all things, which is why this system of views is called "humanism"(from Latin humanus - humane).

Humanism (from Latin homo - man) - an ideological movement that affirms the value of man and human life.

In the Renaissance, humanism manifested itself in a worldview that placed the focus of world existence no longer on God, but on man. A unique manifestation of humanism was the assertion of the primacy of reason over faith. A person can independently explore the mysteries of existence by studying the foundations of the existence of nature. During the Renaissance, speculative principles of knowledge were rejected, and experimental, natural-scientific knowledge was resumed. Fundamentally new, anti-scholastic pictures of the world were created: the heliocentric picture Nicolaus Copernicus and a picture of an infinite universe Giordano Bruno. The most significant thing was that religion was separated from science, politics and morality. The era of the formation of experimental sciences began, their role as providing true knowledge about nature was recognized.

What was the basis of the new worldview? This question cannot be answered unambiguously. The Renaissance phenomenon was caused by a number of factors, among which are the most common for most countries Western Europe. During the period under review, the process of formation of new (bourgeois or market) relations was quite clearly observed, which required the destruction of the system of medieval regulation of economic life that restrained their development. New forms of management assumed the liberation and separation of the economic entity into an independent free unit. This process was accompanied by corresponding changes in the spiritual life of society and, above all, those layers of it that were at the epicenter of the changes.

An indispensable condition for personal success is knowledge knowledge and skill, great energy and persistence in achieving goals. Awareness of this truth forced many contemporaries of the Renaissance to turn their attention to science and art, caused an increase in the need for knowledge in society, and raised the social prestige of educated people.

This is how the famous French philosopher and art critic, a deep expert on the Renaissance, spoke about it Hippolyte Taine(1828-1893):

... the art of the Renaissance cannot be looked at as the result of a happy accident; here there can be no question of a successful play of fate, which brought several more talented heads onto the world stage, accidentally producing some extraordinary crop of geniuses...; It can hardly be denied that the reason for such a wonderful prosperity of art lay in the general disposition of minds towards it, in the amazing ability for it located in all parts of the people. This ability was instantaneous, and the art itself was the same.

The ideas of humanism that what is important in a person are his personal qualities, such as intelligence, creative energy, enterprise, self-esteem, will and education, and not his social status and origin, lay on fertile ground. As a result of more than two centuries of the Renaissance World culture enriched with spiritual treasures, the value of which is eternal.

Two trends in the culture of the Renaissance determined its inconsistency - these are:

Rethinking Antiquity;

Combination with the cultural values ​​of the Christian (Catholic) tradition.

On the one hand, the Renaissance can be safely characterized as an era of joyful self-affirmation of man, and on the other hand, as an era of man’s comprehension of the whole tragedy of his existence. The Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev considered this era to be a time of collision between ancient and Christian principles, which caused a deep division of man. The great artists of the Renaissance, he believed, were obsessed with a breakthrough into another transcendental world, the dream of which was given to them by Christ. They were focused on with building of a different existence, felt in themselves forces similar to the forces of the creator. However, these tasks were obviously impossible to accomplish in earthly life. This leads to a tragic worldview, to “revival melancholy.”

Thus, with all the diversity of contradictions, with all the cruelty and rudeness of morals, the Renaissance raised society to a qualitatively new level of awareness of itself, its activities and its goals.

You should also pay attention to the inconsistency of the concept of unlimited will and human ability for self-improvement. Its humanistic orientation did not guarantee the replacement of the concept of individual freedom with the concept of permissiveness - in fact, the antipodes of humanism. An example of this can be the views of the Italian thinker Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527), who justified any means to achieve power, as well as the English humanist Thomas More(1478-1535) and Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella(1568-1639), who saw the ideal of social harmony in a society built according to a rigid hierarchical system regulating all spheres of life. Subsequently, this model would be called “barracks communism.” This metamorphosis is based on a fairly deep feeling among Renaissance thinkers of the dual nature of freedom. The point of view of the largest Western psychologist and sociologist seems very appropriate in this regard Erich Fromm(1900-1980):

“The individual is freed from economic and political fetters. He also gains positive freedom - along with the active and independent role that he has to play in the new system - but at the same time he is freed from the ties that gave him a sense of confidence and belonging to some community. He can no longer live his life in a small world, the center of which was himself; the world has become limitless and threatening. Having lost his specific place in this world, a person also lost the answer to the question about the meaning of life, and doubts fell upon him: who is he, why does he live? Paradise is lost forever; the individual stands alone, face to face with his world, limitless and threatening.”

The end of the Renaissance

In the 40s of the 16th century. The church in Italy began to widely repress dissidents. In 1542, the Inquisition was reorganized and its tribunal was created in Rome.

Many advanced scientists and thinkers who continued to adhere to the traditions of the Renaissance were repressed and died at the stake of the Inquisition (among them the great Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno, 1548-1600). In 1540 it was approved Jesuit order, which essentially turned into a repressive organ of the Vatican. In 1559, Pope Paul IV first published "List of Banned Books"(Index librorum prohibitorum), subsequently supplemented several times. The works of literature named in the “List” were forbidden to be read by believers under pain of excommunication. Among the books to be destroyed were many works of humanistic literature of the Renaissance (for example, the works of Boccaccio). Thus, the Renaissance by the early 40s of the 17th century. ended in Italy.

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Legacy of Ancient Egypt

Italy is a country with an interesting and rich history. On its territory it was formed from the most powerful military empires in the world - Ancient Rome. There were also cities of ancient Greeks and Etruscans here. It is not for nothing that they say that Italy is the birthplace of the Renaissance, since only in terms of the number of architectural monuments it ranks first in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Titian, Raphael, Petrarch, Dante - this is only the tiniest and far from complete list of all the names of people who worked and lived in this beautiful country.

General prerequisites

The features of the ideas of humanism in Italian culture are already evident in Dante Alighieri, the predecessor of the Renaissance, who lived at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. The new movement manifested itself most fully in the middle of the 14th century. Italy is the birthplace of the entire European Renaissance, since the socio-economic prerequisites for this were ripe here first of all. In Italy, capitalist relations began to form early, and people who were interested in their development had to leave the yoke of feudalism and the tutelage of the church. These were bourgeois, but they were not bourgeois-limited people, as in subsequent centuries. These were broad-minded people who traveled, spoke several languages ​​and were active participants in any political events.

Aurora (1614) - Renaissance painting

Cultural figures of that time fought against scholasticism, asceticism, mysticism, and the subordination of literature and art to religion; they called themselves humanists. Writers of the Middle Ages took the “letter” from ancient authors, that is, individual information, passages, maxims taken out of context.

Renaissance

Renaissance writers read and studied entire works, paying attention to the essence of the works. They also turned to folklore, folk art, folk wisdom. The first humanists are considered to be Francesco Petrarca, the author of a series of sonnets in honor of Laura, and Giovanni Boccaccio, the author of The Decameron, a collection of short stories.

Flying machine - Leonardo da Vinci

The characteristic features of the culture of that new time are as follows:

• The main subject of depiction in literature is a person.
• He is endowed with a strong character.
• Renaissance realism broadly shows life with a full reproduction of its contradictions.
• Authors begin to perceive nature differently. If for Dante it still symbolizes the psychological range of moods, then for later authors nature brings joy with its real charm.

3 reasons why Italy became the birthplace of the Renaissance?

1. Italy by the time of the Renaissance turned out to be one of the most fragmented countries in Europe; a single political and national center never emerged here. The formation of a single state was hampered by the struggle between popes and emperors for their dominance throughout the Middle Ages. Therefore, the economic and political development of different regions of Italy was uneven. The areas of the central and northern parts of the peninsula were part of the papal possessions; in the south was the Kingdom of Naples; middle Italy (Tuscany), which included cities such as Florence, Pisa, Siena, and individual cities of the north (Genoa, Milan, Venice) were independent and wealthy centers of the country. In fact, Italy was a conglomerate of disunited, constantly competing and warring territories.
2. It was in Italy that truly unique conditions developed for maintaining sprouts new culture. The absence of centralized power, as well as an advantageous geographical location on the routes of European trade with the East, contributed to the further development of independent cities, the development of a capitalist and new political structure in them. In the leading cities of Tuscany and Lombardy already in the 12th – 13th centuries. Communal revolutions took place, and a republican system emerged, within which a fierce party struggle was constantly taking place. The main political forces here were financiers, wealthy merchants and artisans.

Under these conditions, the public activity of citizens who sought to support politicians who contributed to the enrichment and prosperity of the city was very high. Thus, public support in various city republics contributed to the promotion and strengthening of power of several wealthy families: the Visconti and Sforza in Milan and all of Lombardy, the Medici bankers in Florence and all of Tuscany, the Great Council of the Doges in Venice. And although the republics gradually turned into tyrannies with obvious features of a monarchy, they still maintained to a large extent on popularity and authority. Therefore, the new Italian rulers sought to secure consent public opinion and in every possible way demonstrated their commitment to the growing social movement - humanism. They attracted the most outstanding people of the time - scientists, writers, artists - and themselves tried to develop their education and taste.

1. In the conditions of the emergence and growth of national self-awareness, it was the Italians who felt themselves to be direct descendants of the great ancient Rome. Interest in the ancient past, which did not fade throughout the Middle Ages, now simultaneously meant interest in one’s national past, or more precisely, the past of one’s people, the traditions of their native antiquity. In no other country in Europe have so many traces of the great ancient civilization remained as in Italy. And although these were most often just ruins (for example, the Colosseum was used as a quarry during almost the entire Middle Ages), now it was they who gave the impression of greatness and glory. Thus, ancient antiquity was interpreted as the great national past of the native country.

F. Lippe Madonna

The early 15th century saw huge changes in life and culture in Italy. Since the 12th century, the townspeople, merchants and artisans of Italy have waged a heroic struggle against feudal dependence. By developing trade and production, the townspeople gradually became richer, overthrew the power of the feudal lords and organized free city-states. These free Italian cities became very powerful. Their citizens were proud of their conquests. The enormous wealth of independent Italian cities was the reason for their vibrant prosperity. The Italian bourgeoisie looked at the world with different eyes, they firmly believed in themselves, in their strength. They were alien to the desire for suffering, humility, and the renunciation of all earthly joys that had been preached to them until now. Respect for earthly man who enjoys the joys of life grew. People began to take an active approach to life, eagerly study the world, and admire its beauty. During this period, various sciences were born and art developed.

Italy has preserved many monuments of art Ancient Rome, therefore, the ancient era again began to be revered as a model, ancient art became an object of worship. Imitation of antiquity gave rise to calling this period in art the Renaissance, which translated from French means “Renaissance.” Of course, this was not a blind, exact repetition of ancient art, it was already new art, but based on ancient examples. Italian Renaissance divided into 3 stages: VIII - XIV centuries - Pre-Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance or Trecento - from it.); XV century - early Renaissance (Quattrocento); end XV - beginning of XVI century - High Renaissance.

Throughout Italy there were archaeological excavations, looked for ancient monuments. Newly discovered statues, coins, dishes, and weapons were carefully preserved and collected in museums specially created for this purpose. Artists learned from these examples of antiquity and painted them from life.

Flight into Egypt (Giotto)

Trecento (Pre-Renaissance)

The true beginning of the Renaissance is associated with the name Giotto di Bondone(1266? - 1337). He is considered the founder of Renaissance painting. The Florentine Giotto has great services to the history of art. He was a renovator, the founder of all European painting after the Middle Ages. Giotto breathed life into the gospel scenes, created images of real people, spiritualized but earthly.

Return of Joachim to the Shepherds (Giotto)

Giotto first creates volumes using chiaroscuro. He loves clean, light colors in cool shades: pink, pearl gray, pale purple and light lilac. The people in Giotto's frescoes are stocky and walk heavily. They have large facial features, wide cheekbones, narrow eyes. His person is kind, attentive, and serious.

Fresco by Giotto in the Temple of Padua

Of Giotto's works, the frescoes in the temples of Padua are the best preserved. He presented the Gospel stories here as existing, earthly, real. In these works, he talks about problems that concern people at all times: about kindness and mutual understanding, deceit and betrayal, about depth, sorrow, meekness, humility and the eternal all-consuming maternal love.

Fresco by Giotto

Instead of disparate individual figures, as in medieval painting, Giotto was able to create a coherent story, a whole narrative about a complex inner life heroes. Instead of the conventional golden background of Byzantine mosaics, Giotto introduces a landscape background. And if in Byzantine painting the figures seemed to float and hang in space, then the heroes of Giotto’s frescoes found solid ground under their feet. Giotto's quest to convey space, the plasticity of figures, and the expressiveness of movement made his art a whole stage in the Renaissance.

Fresco by S. Martini

One of the famous masters of the Pre-Renaissance is Simone Martini (1284 - 1344).

His paintings retained the features of Northern Gothic: Martini's figures are elongated, and, as a rule, on a golden background. But Martini creates images using chiaroscuro, gives them natural movement, and tries to convey a certain psychological state.

Fragment of a fresco. Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449 - 1494)

Quattrocento (early Renaissance)

Antiquity played a huge role in the formation of the secular culture of the early Renaissance. The Platonic Academy opens in Florence, the Laurentian Library contains a rich collection of ancient manuscripts. The first art museums appeared, filled with statues, fragments of ancient architecture, marbles, coins, and ceramics.

During the Renaissance, the main centers of artistic life in Italy emerged - Florence, Rome, Venice. Florence was one of the largest centers, the birthplace of new, realistic art. In the 15th century, many famous Renaissance masters lived, studied and worked there.

Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence Cathedral)

Early Renaissance architecture

Residents of Florence had a high artistic culture, they actively participated in the creation of city monuments, and discussed options for the construction of beautiful buildings. Architects abandoned everything that resembled Gothic. Under the influence of antiquity, buildings topped with a dome began to be considered the most perfect. The model here was the Roman Pantheon.

Florence is one of the most beautiful cities in the world, a city-museum. It has preserved its architecture from antiquity almost intact, its most beautiful buildings being mainly built during the Renaissance. Rising above the red brick roofs of Florence's ancient buildings is the huge building of the city's Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, which is often simply called the Florence Cathedral. Its height reaches 107 meters. A magnificent dome, the slenderness of which is emphasized by white stone ribs, crowns the cathedral. The dome is amazing in size (its diameter is 43 m), it crowns the entire panorama of the city. The cathedral is visible from almost every street in Florence, clearly silhouetted against the sky. This magnificent structure was built by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 - 1446).

St. Peter's Basilica (architects Brunelleschi and Bramante)

The most magnificent and famous domed building of the Renaissance was St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It took more than 100 years to build. The creators of the original project were architects Bramante and Michelangelo.

Renaissance buildings are decorated with columns, pilasters, lion heads and “putti” (naked babies), plaster wreaths of flowers and fruits, leaves and many details, examples of which were found in the ruins of ancient Roman buildings. The semicircular arch has come back into fashion. Wealthy people began to build more beautiful and more comfortable houses. Instead of houses closely pressed together, luxurious palaces - palazzos - appeared.

David (sk.Donatello)

Early Renaissance sculpture

In the 15th century in Florence they created two famous sculptors - Donatello and Verrocchio. Donatello (1386? - 1466)- one of the first sculptors in Italy who used the experience of ancient art. He created one of the beautiful works of the early Renaissance - the statue of David.

According to the biblical legend, a simple shepherd, the young man David defeated the giant Goliath, and thereby saved the inhabitants of Judea from enslavement and later became king. David was one of the favorite images of the Renaissance. He is depicted by the sculptor not as a humble saint from the Bible, but as young hero, winner, defender of his hometown. In his sculpture, Donatello glorifies man as the ideal of a beautiful heroic personality that arose during the Renaissance. David is crowned with the laurel wreath of the winner. Donatello was not afraid to introduce such a detail as a shepherd's hat - a sign of his simple origin. In the Middle Ages, the church forbade depicting the naked body, considering it a vessel of evil. Donatello was the first master to bravely violate this prohibition. He asserts by this that the human body is beautiful. The statue of David is the first round sculpture of that era.

Statue of the commander Gattamelata (Sc. Donatello)

Another beautiful sculpture by Donatello is also known - the statue of the warrior, commander Gattamelata. It was the first equestrian monument of the Renaissance. Created 500 years ago, this monument still stands on a high pedestal, decorating a square in the city of Padua. For the first time, not a god, not a saint, not a noble and rich person was immortalized in sculpture, but a noble, brave and formidable warrior with a great soul, who earned fame through great deeds. Dressed in antique armor, Gattemelata (this is his nickname, meaning “spotted cat”) sits on a powerful horse in a calm, majestic pose. The warrior’s facial features emphasize a decisive, firm character.

Equestrian monument to the condottiere Colleoni (Verocchio)

Andrea Verrocchio (1436 -1488)

The most famous student of Donatello, who created the famous equestrian monument to the condottiere Colleoni, which was erected in Venice in the square near the Church of San Giovanni. The main thing that is striking about the monument is the joint energetic movement of horse and rider. The horse seems to rush beyond the marble pedestal on which the monument is installed.

Colleoni, standing up in his stirrups, stretched out, holding his head high, peers into the distance. A grimace of anger and tension was frozen on his face. There is a sense of great will in his posture, his face resembles a bird of prey. The image is filled with indestructible strength, energy, and stern authority.

Fresco by Masaccio

Early Renaissance painting

The Renaissance also renewed the art of painting. Painters have learned to accurately convey space, light and shadow, natural poses, and various human feelings. It was the early Renaissance that was the time of accumulation of this knowledge and skills. The paintings of that time are imbued with a bright and upbeat mood. The background is often painted in light colors, and buildings and natural motifs are outlined with sharp lines, pure colors predominate. All the details of the event are depicted with naive diligence; the characters are most often lined up and separated from the background by clear contours.

The painting of the early Renaissance only strived for perfection, however, thanks to its sincerity, it touches the soul of the viewer.

Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai Guidi, Known as Masaccio (1401 - 1428)

He is considered a follower of Giotto and the first master of painting of the early Renaissance. Masaccio lived only 28 years, but during his short life he left a mark on art that is difficult to overestimate. He managed to complete the revolutionary transformations begun by Giotto in painting. His paintings are distinguished by dark and deep colors. The people in Masaccio's frescoes are much denser and more powerful than in the paintings of the Gothic era.

Fresco by Masaccio

Masaccio was the first to correctly arrange objects in space, taking into account the perspective; He began to depict people according to the laws of anatomy.

He knew how to connect figures and landscape into a single action, dramatically and at the same time quite naturally conveying the life of nature and people - and this is the great merit of the painter.

Adoration of the Magi (Masaccio)

Madonna and Child with Four Angels (Masaccio)

This is one of the few easel works by Masaccio, commissioned from him in 1426 for the chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Pisa.

The Madonna sits on a throne built strictly according to Giotto's laws of perspective. Her figure is painted with confident and clear strokes, which creates the impression of sculptural volume. Her face is calm and sad, her detached gaze is directed into nowhere. Wrapped in a dark blue cloak, the Virgin Mary holds in her arms the Child, whose golden figure stands out sharply against a dark background. The deep folds of the cloak allow the artist to play with chiaroscuro, which also creates a special visual effect. The baby eats black grapes - a symbol of communion. Flawlessly drawn angels (the artist knew human anatomy very well) surrounding the Madonna give the picture an additional emotional resonance.

Masaccio.Fresco from the library of the Cathedral in Siena, dedicated to the biography of the humanist and poet Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405-1464)

Here is the solemn departure of Cardinal Capranica for the Council of Basel, which lasted almost 18 years, from 1431 to 1449, first in Basel and then in Lausanne. The young Piccolomini was also in the cardinal's retinue.

A group of horsemen accompanied by pages and servants is presented in an elegant frame of a semicircular arch. The event is not so real and reliable as it is chivalrously refined, almost fantastic.

In the foreground, a handsome rider on a white horse, in a luxurious dress and hat, turns his head and looks at the viewer - this is Aeneas Silvio. The artist takes pleasure in painting rich clothes and beautiful horses in velvet blankets. The elongated proportions of the figures, slightly mannered movements, slight tilts of the head are close to the court ideal.

The life of Pope Pius II was full of bright events, and Pinturicchio spoke about the meetings of the pope with the King of Scotland, with Emperor Frederick III.

Saints Jerome and John the Baptist (Masaccio)

The only panel painted by Masaccio for a double-sided triptych. After early death the painter, the rest of the work, commissioned by Pope Martin V for the Church of Santa Maria in Rome, was completed by the artist Masolino.

Here are depicted two austere, monumentally executed figures of saints, dressed all in red. Jerome holds an open book and a model of the basilica, with a lion lying at his feet. John the Baptist is depicted in his in the usual form: He is barefoot and holds a cross in his hand. Both figures amaze with their anatomical precision and almost sculptural sense of volume.

Portrait of a Boy (1480) (Pinturicchio)

Interest in man and admiration for his beauty were so great during the Renaissance that this led to the emergence a new genre in painting - the portrait genre.

Pinturicchio (version of Pinturicchio) (1454 - 1513) (Bernardino di Betto di Biagio)

Native of Perugia in Italy. For some time he painted miniatures and helped Pietro Perugino decorate the Sistine Chapel in Rome with frescoes. Gained experience in in the most complex form decorative and monumental wall painting. Within a few years, Pinturicchio became an independent muralist. He worked on frescoes in the Borgia apartments in the Vatican. He did wall paintings in the library of the Cathedral in Siena.

The artist not only conveys portrait likeness, but strives to reveal the inner state of a person. Before us is a teenage boy, dressed in a formal pink city dweller’s dress, with a small blue cap on his head. Brown hair goes down to the shoulders, framing a gentle face, the attentive gaze of brown eyes is thoughtful, a little anxious.

Behind the boy is an Umbrian landscape with thin trees, a silvery river, and a pinkish sky on the horizon. The spring tenderness of nature, as an echo of the character of the hero, is in harmony with the poetry and charm of the hero.

The image of the boy is given in the foreground, large and occupies almost the entire plane of the picture, and the landscape is painted in the background and very small.

This creates the impression of the importance of man, his dominance over the surrounding nature, and affirms that man is the most beautiful creation on earth.

Madonna and Child with Two Angels (F. Lippi)

Filippo Lippi (1406 - 1469)

Legends arose about Lippi's life. He himself was a monk, but left the monastery, became a wandering artist, kidnapped a nun from the monastery and died, poisoned by the relatives of a young woman with whom he fell in love in old age. He painted images of the Madonna and Child, filled with living human feelings and experiences. In his paintings he depicted many details: everyday objects, surroundings, so his religious subjects were similar to secular paintings.

Annunciation (1443) (F. Lippi)

Coronation of Mary (1441-1447) (F. Lippi)

Portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni (1488) (Ghirlandaio)

He painted not only religious subjects, but also scenes from the life of the Florentine nobility, their wealth and luxury, and portraits of noble people.

Before us is the wife of a rich Florentine, a friend of the artist. In this not very beautiful, luxuriously dressed young woman, the artist expressed calm, a moment of stillness and silence. The expression on the woman’s face is cold, indifferent to everything, it seems that she foresees her imminent death: soon after painting the portrait she will die. The woman is depicted in profile, which is typical for many portraits of that time.

Epiphany (1458-1460) (P.della Francesca)

Piero della Francesca (1415/1416 - 1492)

One of the most significant names in Italian painting of the 15th century. He completed numerous transformations in the methods of constructing the perspective of pictorial space.

The painting was painted on a poplar board with egg tempera - obviously, by this time the artist had not yet mastered the secrets oil painting, in the technique of which his later works would be written.

The artist captured the appearance of the mystery of the Holy Trinity at the moment of the Baptism of Christ. The white dove spreading its wings over the head of Christ symbolizes the descent of the Holy Spirit onto the Savior. The figures of Christ, John the Baptist and the angels standing next to them are painted in restrained colors.

Fresco della Francesca

His frescoes are solemn, sublime and majestic. Francesca believed in the high destiny of man and in his works people always do wonderful things. He used subtle, gentle transitions of colors. Francesca was the first to paint en plein air (in the open air).

Dead Christ (Mantegna)

Andrea Mantegna (1431 - 1506)

A major artist from Padua. He admired the harsh grandeur of the works of ancient artists. His images are reminiscent of Greek sculptures - strict and beautiful. In his frescoes Mantegna sang heroic personality. Nature in his paintings is deserted and inhospitable.

Mantegna. Madonna and Child, John the Baptist and Mary Magdalene (1500)

The Madonna sits on a scarlet chair under a canopy and holds the naked Child Christ in her arms. There is nothing regal in the appearance of the Virgin Mary; rather, it is the image of a young peasant woman. The naked body of the Child seems surprisingly alive. On either side of the Madonna are John the Baptist and Mary Magdalene. In the hands of Magdalene is a vessel with incense for anointing; in the hands of John, a ribbon with text about a lamb atonement for the sins of the world is wrapped around the cross. The figures are drawn in the usual manner for the artist and appear to be carved from stone, every fold of their clothing is sharply defined. The background is an image of a garden with dark foliage. In its tone, this greenery contrasts with the soft green, light sky. The work evokes a feeling of deep sadness and a certain doom.

Parnassus (Mantegna)

Prayer for the Cup (Mantegna)

This small painting depicts the moment when, after the Last Supper, Jesus retires with Saint Peter and the two sons of Zebedee to the Garden of Gethsemane, where, leaving the apostles accompanying him, he goes to pray, turning to God the Father: “My Father! If it is possible, let the cup pass from Me this."

The kneeling figure of Christ in a prayerful pose is the compositional center of the picture. His gaze is turned to the sky, where a group of angels is visible on a cloud. At the foot of the mountain the apostles accompanying Christ sleep.

Along the road leading to the garden, precisely illustrating the words of the Gospel: “Behold, he who betrayed Me has drawn near,” a group of guards is visible, led by Judas.

There is a lot of symbolism in the picture: a dry tree with a vulture foreshadows death, and a branch with a green shoot indicates an imminent resurrection; humble rabbits sitting on the road along which a detachment of Roman soldiers will pass to take Christ into custody speak of the meekness of man in the face of inevitable death. Three stumps left from freshly cut down trees are reminiscent of the impending crucifixion.

Sacred Conversation (Bellini)

Giovanni Bellini (1427/1430 - 1516)

The Bellini brothers showed themselves clearly in the early Renaissance. Especially famous is Giovanni Bellini, who was often called Gianbellino. He grew up in the family of a major Venetian painter. Together with my brother, from my youth I helped my father carry out artistic orders. Worked on decorating the Venetian Doge's Palace.

His paintings are distinguished by their soft picturesqueness and rich golden coloring. Gianbellino's Madonnas seem to dissolve in the landscape, always organic with it.

Madonna of the Meadow (1500-1505) Bellini.

In the center of the picture is the image of a young Mary sitting in a meadow, on whose lap is a sleeping naked baby. Her thoughtful face is lovely, her hands folded in a prayer gesture are beautiful. The figurine of the divine baby seems to be a sculpture, this indicates a close acquaintance with the work of Mantegna. However, the softness of the chiaroscuro and the overall richness of the color scheme indicate that Bellini found his way in painting.

There is a beautiful landscape in the background. The painting was painted in mixed media, which allowed the artist to make the contours softer and the colors more saturated.

Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan. Bellini

This portrait was commissioned by Bellini as an artist of the Venetian Republic. The Doge is depicted here almost frontally - contrary to the then existing tradition of depicting faces in profile, including on medals and coins.

Clear chiaroscuro perfectly depicts the high cheekbones, nose and stubborn chin of the intelligent and strong-willed face of an elderly man. A white, gold and silver brocade mantle stands out in contrast against a bright blue-green background. The Doge wore it on the feast of the Presentation - the day when he became engaged to the sea, taking power over Venice for a year. Working in oils helped the artist fill the space of the painting with air and thereby make the image of the Doge surprisingly alive.

XIV-XV century. A new, turbulent era begins in European countries - the Renaissance (Renaissance - from the French Renaissanse). The beginning of the era is associated with the liberation of man from feudal-serfdom, the development of sciences, arts and crafts.

The Renaissance began in Italy and continued its development in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. The Late Renaissance dates from the mid-16th to the 1690s.

The influence of the church on the life of society has weakened, interest in antiquity is being revived with its attention to the individual, his freedom and development opportunities. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of literacy among the population, the growth of education, and the development of sciences and arts, including fiction. The bourgeoisie was not satisfied with the religious worldview that dominated the Middle Ages, but created a new, secular science based on the study of nature and the heritage of ancient writers. Thus began the “revival” of ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) science and philosophy. Scientists began to search for and study ancient literary monuments stored in libraries.

Writers and artists appeared who dared to speak out against the church. They were convinced: the greatest value on earth is man, and all his interests should be focused on earthly life, on living it fully, happily and meaningfully. Such people who dedicated their art to people began to be called humanists.

Renaissance literature is characterized by humanistic ideals. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called “Renaissance realism” (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, educational, critical, socialist. The works of the Renaissance give us an answer to the question about the complexity and importance of the affirmation of the human personality, its creative and effective beginning.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. Giovanni Boccaccio becomes the legislator of a new genre - the short story, which is called the Renaissance short story. This genre was born of the feeling of wonder at the inexhaustibility of the world and the unpredictability of man and his actions, characteristic of the Renaissance.

In poetry, the sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a specific rhyme) becomes the most characteristic form. Dramaturgy is receiving great development. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works and creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("In Praise of Stupidity") are also widely known.

Among the writers of that time were crowned heads. Duke Lorenzo de' Medici writes poetry, and Margaret of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the collection Heptameron.

In the fine arts of the Renaissance, man appeared as the most beautiful creation of nature, strong and perfect, angry and gentle, thoughtful and cheerful.

The world of Renaissance man is most clearly represented in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, painted by Michelangelo. Biblical scenes form the vault of the chapel. Their main motive is the creation of the world and man. These frescoes are full of grandeur and tenderness. On the altar wall there is a fresco "The Last Judgment", which was created in 1537–1541. Here Michelangelo sees in man not the “crown of creation,” but Christ is presented as angry and punishing. The ceiling and altar wall of the Sistine Chapel represent a clash of possibility and reality, the sublimity of the plan and the tragedy of its implementation. "The Last Judgment" is considered the work that completed the Renaissance era in art.

Renaissance(Renaissance)

Renaissance (Renaissance), an era of intellectual and artistic flowering that began in Italy in the 14th century, peaking in the 16th century and having a significant impact on European culture. The term "Renaissance", which meant a return to the values ​​of the ancient world (although interest in Roman classics arose in the 12th century), appeared in the 15th century and received theoretical justification in the 16th century in the works of Vasari, dedicated to the work of famous artists, sculptors and architects. At this time, an idea was formed about the harmony reigning in nature and about man as the crown of its creation. Among the outstanding representatives of this era is the artist Alberti; architect, artist, scientist, poet and mathematician Leonardo da Vinci.

The architect Brunelleschi, innovatively using Hellenistic (ancient) traditions, created several buildings that were not inferior in beauty to the best ancient examples. Very interesting are the works of Bramante, whom his contemporaries considered the most talented architect of the High Renaissance, and Palladio, who created large architectural ensembles that were distinguished by the integrity of their artistic concept and the variety of compositional solutions. The theater buildings and sets were constructed based on the architectural work of Vitruvius (circa 15 BC) in accordance with the principles of the Roman theater. Playwrights followed strict classical canons. The auditorium, as a rule, was shaped like a horse's horseshoe; in front of it there was a raised platform with a proscenium, separated from the main space by an arch. This was adopted as the model for a theater building for the entire Western world for the next five centuries.

Renaissance painters created a coherent concept of the world with internal unity and filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content (Nicola Pisano, late 14th century; Donatello, early 15th century). A realistic depiction of a person has become the main goal of artists Early Renaissance, as evidenced by the works of Giotto and Masaccio. The invention of a way to convey perspective contributed to a more truthful reflection of reality. One of the main themes of Renaissance paintings (Gilbert, Michelangelo) was the tragic irreconcilability of conflicts, the struggle and death of the hero.

Around 1425, Florence became the center of the Renaissance (Florentine art), but by the beginning of the 16th century (High Renaissance), Venice took the leading place ( Venetian art) and Rome. The cultural centers were the courts of the Dukes of Mantua, Urbino and Ferrada. The main patrons of the arts were the Medici and the popes, especially Julius II and Leo X. The largest representatives of the “northern Renaissance” were Durer, Cranach the Elder, and Holbein. Northern artists mainly imitated the best Italian models, and only a few, such as Jan van Scorel, managed to create their own style, which was distinguished by its particular elegance and grace, later called Mannerism.

Renaissance Artists:

Famous paintings by Renaissance artists