Originality ancient Russian literature:

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Sciences such as textual criticism and paleography can come to the rescue (studies external signs handwritten monuments – handwriting, lettering, nature of the writing material).

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre ancient literature, either historical story or a legend, life or church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper echelons of feudal society. However, it could not help but show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings or in the forms of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature vividly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected national interests, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

The problem of artistic method:

The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and a concrete vision of reality associated with labor practice. In the minds of medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion insisted that human life on earth is temporary. The purpose of earthly life is preparation for eternal, incorruptible life. These preparations should consist of moral improvement of the soul, curbing sinful passions, etc.

Two aspects of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are associated with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:

1) reproduction of individual facts in all their specificity, purely empirical statements;

2) consistent transformation of life, that is, idealization of facts real life, an image not of what exists, but of what should be.

The first side of the artistic method is associated with the historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding, and with the second - its symbolism.

The Old Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events were also full of symbolic meaning, since he believed that history moves and is directed by the will of the deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing the truth, discovering the inner meaning of a phenomenon. Just as the phenomena of the surrounding world are polysemantic, so is the word. This is where the symbolic nature of metaphors and comparisons in ancient Russian literature stems.

An Old Russian writer, trying to convey an image of truth, strictly follows a fact that he himself witnessed or about which he learned from the words of an eyewitness, a participant in the event. He does not doubt the truth of miracles, supernatural phenomena, he believes in their reality.

As a rule, the heroes of works of ancient Russian literature are historical figures. Only in some cases do representatives of the people turn out to be heroes.

Medieval literature is still alien to any individualization of human character. Old Russian writers create generalized typological images of an ideal ruler, a warrior, on the one hand, and an ideal ascetic, on the other. These images are sharply contrasted with the generalized typological image of the evil ruler and the collective image of the demon-devil, personifying evil.

In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.

The source of goodness, good thoughts and actions is God. The devil and demons push people to evil. However, Old Russian literature does not relieve responsibility from the person himself. Everyone is free to choose their own path.

In the consciousness of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always beautiful. Evil is associated with darkness.

The writer builds his works on the contrast of good and evil. He brings the reader to the idea that high moral qualities of a person are the result of hard moral work.

The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, druzhina, and church classes.

Strict adherence to the rhythm established by the ancestors of the order constitutes life basis etiquette, ceremoniality of ancient Russian literature. So the chronicler, first of all, sought to put the numbers in a row, that is, to arrange the material he selected in chronological sequence.

The works of ancient Russian literature were didactic and moralizing in nature. They were called upon to help get rid of vices.

So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didacticism are the leading principles of artistic representation in works of ancient Russian literature. In different works, depending on the genre and time of their creation, these features manifested themselves differently.

The historical development of Old Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didacticism.

3 – 6. “The Tale of Bygone Years.”

The main ideas of the initial chronicle. Already in the title itself - “Behold the tales of the bygone years, where did the Russian land come from, who began to reign first in Kyiv, and where did the Russian land come from” - contains an indication of the ideological and thematic content of the chronicle. The Russian land, its historical destinies, from its origin to the first decade of the 12th century, are the focus of the chronicle. The high patriotic idea of ​​the power of the Russian land, its political independence, religious independence from Byzantium constantly guides the chronicler when he introduces into his work the “traditions of deep antiquity” and truly historical events of the recent past.

The chronicles are unusually topical, journalistic, full of sharp condemnation of princely strife and strife, weakening the power of the Russian land, a call to guard the Russian land, not to disgrace the Russian land in the fight against external enemies, first of all with the steppe nomads - the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians.

The theme of the homeland is decisive and leading in the chronicle. The interests of the homeland dictate to the chronicler one or another assessment of the prince’s actions and are the measure of his glory and greatness. A living sense of the Russian land, homeland and people gives the Russian chronicler that unprecedented breadth of political horizon, which is unusual in Western European historical chronicles.

From written sources, chroniclers borrow the historical Christian-scholastic concept, connecting the history of the Russian land with the general course of development of “world” history. The Tale of Bygone Years opens with the biblical legend of the division of the earth after the flood between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japheth. The Slavs are the descendants of Japhet, that is, they, like the Greeks, belong to a single family of European peoples.

Finally, it is possible to “establish” the first date - 6360 - (852) - mentioned in "Chronicles of the Greeks" "Russian Land". This date makes it possible to put "numbers in a row" that is, proceed to a consistent chronological presentation, more precisely, the arrangement of the material "by the years" - on years. And when they cannot attach any event to a particular date, they limit themselves to simply fixing the date itself (for example: “in the summer of 6368”, “in the summer of 6369”). The chronological principle provided ample opportunities for free handling of the material, made it possible to introduce new legends and stories into the chronicle, exclude old ones if they did not correspond to the political interests of the time and the author, and supplement the chronicle with records of events of recent years, of which its compiler was a contemporary.

As a result of the application of the weather chronological principle of presenting the material, the idea of ​​history gradually emerged as a continuous sequential chain of events. The chronological connection was reinforced by a genealogical, tribal connection, the continuity of the rulers of the Russian land, starting from Rurik and ending (in the Tale of Bygone Years) with Vladimir Monomakh.

At the same time, this principle made the chronicle fragmentary, which I. P. Eremin drew attention to.

Genres included in the chronicle. The chronological principle of presentation allowed the chroniclers to include in the chronicle material that was heterogeneous in nature and genre characteristics. The simplest narrative unit of a chronicle is a laconic weather record, limited only to a statement of fact. However, the very inclusion of this or that information in the chronicle indicates its significance from the point of view of the medieval writer.

The chronicle also presents a type of detailed record, recording not only the “actions” of the prince, but also their results. For example: "IN summer 6391. Until Oleg fought the Derevlyans, and, having tormented them, imposed a tribute on them, according to black kun.” and so on.

Both a brief weather record and a more detailed documentary one. There are no speech-decorating tropes in them. The recording is simple, clear and concise, which gives it special significance, expressiveness and even majesty.

The chronicler's focus is on the event - "What's going on in the summer of strength." They are followed by news of the death of the princes. The birth of children and their marriage are recorded less often. Then information about the construction activities of the princes. Finally, reports on church affairs, which occupy a very modest place. True, the chronicler describes the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, places legends about the beginning Pechersky Monastery, the death of Theodosius of Pechersk and stories about the memorable Monkmen of Pechersk. This is quite explainable by the political significance of the cult of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb and the role of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery in the formation of the initial chronicle.

An important group of chronicle news consists of information about heavenly signs - eclipses of the sun, moon, earthquakes, epidemics, etc. The chronicler sees a connection between unusual natural phenomena and the lives of people, historical events. Historical experience associated with the evidence of the chronicle of George Amartol leads the chronicler to the conclusion: “For signs in the heavens, or the stars, or the sun, or birds, or creatures, are not for good; but there are signs of evil, whether the manifestation of an army, or a famine, or death.”

News of various topics can be combined within one chronicle article. The material included in the “Tale of Bygone Years” allows us to distinguish a historical legend, a toponymic legend, a historical legend (associated with the heroic druzhina epic), a hagiographic legend, as well as a historical legend and a historical story.

The connection between the chronicle and folklore . The chronicler draws material about the events of the distant past from the treasury of folk memory.

The appeal to the toponymic legend was dictated by the chronicler’s desire to find out the origin of the names of Slavic tribes, individual cities and the word “Rus” itself. Thus, the origin of the Slavic tribes Radimichi and Vyatichi is associated with the legendary people from the Poles - the brothers Radim and Vyatko. This legend arose among the Slavs, obviously, during the period of decomposition of the clan system, when an isolated clan elder, in order to justify his right to political dominance over the rest of the clan, creates a legend about his supposedly foreign origin. Close to this chronicle legend is the legend about the calling of princes, placed in the chronicle under 6370 (862). At the invitation of the Novgorodians from overseas "to reign and to become voluptuous" Three Varangian brothers come to the Russian land with their families: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor.

The folklore nature of the legend confirms the presence of the epic number three - three brothers.

The legend about the calling of the princes served as an important argument for proving the sovereignty of the Kyiv state, and did not at all indicate the inability of the Slavs to independently organize their state, without the help of Europeans, as some scientists tried to prove.

A typical toponymic legend is also the legend about the founding of Kyiv by three brothers - Kiy, Shchek, Khoryv and their sister Lybid. The chronicler himself points to the oral source of the material included in the chronicle: “Ini, ignorant, rekosha, what kind of carrier Kiy was.” The chronicler indignantly rejects the version of the folk legend about Kie the Carrier. He categorically states that Kiy was a prince, made successful campaigns against Constantinople, where he received great honor from the Greek king and founded the settlement of Kievets on the Danube.

Echoes of ritual poetry from the times of the clan system are filled with chronicles about Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral ceremonies.

The chronicle news about Vladimir’s marriage to the Polotsk princess Rogneda, about his abundant and generous feasts held in Kyiv - the Korsun legend - goes back to folk tales. On the one hand, before us appears a pagan prince with his unbridled passions, on the other, an ideal Christian ruler, endowed with all the virtues: meekness, humility, love for the poor, for the monastic and monastic order, etc. A contrasting comparison of the pagan prince With the Christian prince, the chronicler sought to prove the superiority of the new Christian morality over pagan morality.

The reign of Vladimir was covered in the heroism of folk tales already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.

The spirit of the people heroic epic is imbued with the legend of the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaki over the Pechenezh giant. As in the folk epic, the legend emphasizes the superiority of a person of peaceful labor, a simple artisan over a professional warrior - a Pecheneg hero. The images of the legend are built on the principle of contrastive comparison and broad generalization. At first glance, the Russian young man is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but he embodies the enormous, gigantic strength that the Russian people possess, decorating the land with their labor and protecting it on the battlefield from external enemies. The Pecheneg warrior with his gigantic size terrifies those around him. The boastful and arrogant enemy is contrasted with a modest Russian youth, the youngest son of a tanner. He accomplishes the feat without arrogance and boasting. At the same time, the legend is confined to the toponymic legend about the origin of the city of Pereyaslavl - “the zone of reaping the glory of the youth”, but this is a clear anachronism, since Pereyaslavl was already mentioned more than once in the chronicle before this event.

The legend of Belgorod jelly is associated with the folk fairy tale epic. This legend glorifies the intelligence, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the Russian people.

The folklore basis is clearly felt in the church legend about the visit to the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. By placing this legend, the chronicler sought to “historically” substantiate the religious independence of Rus' from Byzantium. The legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly by the disciple of Christ himself - the Apostle Andrew, who once walked the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper and Volkhov, Christianity was predicted on Russian soil. The church legend about how Andrei blessed the Kyiv mountains is combined with the folk tale about Andrei’s visit to the Novgorod land. This legend is of an everyday nature and is associated with the custom of the inhabitants of the Slavic north to steam in hotly heated wooden baths.

Most of the chronicles dedicated to the events of the 9th - late 10th centuries are associated with oral folk art and its epic genres.

Historical stories and legends as part of the chronicle . As the chronicler moves from narrating events of long ago to the recent past, the chronicle material becomes increasingly historically accurate, strictly factual and official.

The chronicler's attention is drawn only to historical figures at the top of the feudal hierarchical ladder. In depicting their actions, he follows the principles of medieval historicism. According to these principles, only purely official events that have historical significance for the state should be recorded in the chronicle, and the private life of a person and the everyday environment around him are not of interest to the chronicler.

The chronicle develops the ideal of a prince-ruler. This ideal is inseparable from the general patriotic ideas of the chronicle. The ideal ruler is the living embodiment of love for native land, her honor and glory, the personification of her power and dignity. All his actions, all his activities are determined by the good of his homeland and people. Therefore, in the view of the chronicler, the prince cannot belong to himself. He is first and foremost a historical figure who always appears in an official setting, endowed with all the attributes of princely power. D. S. Likhachev notes that the prince in the chronicle is always official, he seems to be addressed to the viewer and is presented in his most significant actions. The prince's virtues are a kind of ceremonial clothing; at the same time, some virtues are purely mechanically attached to others, thanks to which it became possible to combine secular and church ideals. Fearlessness, courage, military valor combined with humility, meekness and other Christian virtues.

If the prince’s activities are aimed at the good of his homeland, the chronicler glorifies him in every possible way, endowing him with all the qualities of a predetermined ideal. If the prince’s activities run counter to the interests of the state, the chronicler does not spare black paint and attributes to the negative character all the mortal sins: pride, envy, ambition, greed, etc.

The principles of medieval historicism are vividly embodied in stories "About the murder of Borisov"(1015) and about the blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky, which can be classified as historical stories about princely crimes. However, in style these are completely different works. Tale "About the murder of Borisov" sets out the historical facts of the murder of the brothers Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk with extensive use of elements of hagiographic style. It is built on the contrast of the ideal prince-martyrs and the ideal villain. "cursed" Svyatopolk. The story ends with praise oh, glorifying “Christ-loving passion-bearers”, “shining lamps”, “bright stars” - “intercessors of the Russian land”. At its end there is a prayer call to the martyrs to conquer the filthy "under the nose of our prince" and deliver them "from the internal army" so that they may remain in peace and unity. This is how the patriotic idea common to the entire chronicle is expressed in hagiographic form. At the same time the story "About the murder of Borisov" interesting for a number of “documentary” details, “realistic details”.

The story does not idealize Vasilko. He is not only a victim of slander, cruelty and treachery of Davyd Igorevich, gullibility of Svyatopolk, but he himself reveals no less cruelty both towards the perpetrators of evil and towards innocent people. There is no idealization in the depiction of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk, indecisive, gullible, weak-willed. The story allows the modern reader to imagine the characters of living people with their human weaknesses and strengths.

The story was written by a medieval writer who builds it on the opposition of two symbolic images“cross” and “knife”, the leitmotif running through the entire narrative.

Thus, “The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky” sharply condemns the princes’ violation of their contractual obligations, leading to terrible bloody crimes, bringing evil to the entire Russian land.

Descriptions of events related to the military campaigns of the princes take on the character of a historical documentary tale, indicating the formation of the genre of military stories. Elements of this genre are present in the tale of Yaroslav’s revenge on the Accursed Svyatopolk in 1015-1016.

This chronicle tale already contains the main plot and compositional elements of a military story: gathering troops, going on a campaign, preparing for battle, battle and its denouement.

All this allows us to talk about the presence in “The Tale of Bygone Years” of the main components of the genre of a military story.

Within the framework of the historical documentary style, messages about heavenly signs are kept in the chronicle.

Elements of hagiographic style . The compilers of the “Tale of Bygone Years” also included hagiographic works: a Christian legend, a martyr’s life (the tale of two Varangian martyrs), a legend about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery in 1051, about the death of its abbot Theodosius of Pechersk in 1074 and the legend of the Pechersk monks. The tales included in the chronicles about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb (1072) and Theodosius of Pechersk (1091) were written in a hagiographic style.

The chronicle exalted the exploits of the founders of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, which was "set" neither "from kings, and from boyars, and from wealth", A "tears, and fasting, and vigil" Anthony and Theodosius of Pechersk. In 1074, following the story of the death of Theodosius, the chronicler tells about the Pechersk monkmen who “Like the lights shine in Rus'.”

One of the forms of glorification of princes in the chronicle is posthumous obituaries associated with the genre of funeral laudatory words. The first such word of praise is the obituary of Princess Olga, placed under 969. It begins with a series of metaphorical comparisons glorifying the first Christian princess. The metaphorical images of “daybreak”, “dawn”, “light”, “moon”, “beads” (pearls) were borrowed by the chronicler from Byzantine hagiographic literature, but they were used to glorify the Russian princess and emphasize the significance for Rus' of her feat - the adoption of Christianity.

The obituary-praise of Olga is stylistically close to the praise of Vladimir, placed in the chronicle under 1015. The deceased prince receives an evaluative epithet "blissful", that is, righteous, and his feat is equal to the feat of Constantine the Great.

Obituaries of Mstislav and Rostislav can be classified as a genre of verbal portrait, in which a description of the external appearance and moral qualities princes: “But Mstislav was stout in body, dark-faced, great-eyed, brave in the army, merciful, loving his squad greatly, not sparing his property, neither drinking nor food.”

The obituaries of Izyaslav and Vsevolod, along with the hagiographic idealization of these princes, relate to specific moments of their activities, and in the obituary of Vsevolod there is a voice of condemnation, since Vsevolod began to “to love the meaning of the lost, creating light with them.”

The chronicler drew moralizing maxims and figurative comparisons from Christian literature.

The function of biblical comparisons and reminiscences in the chronicle is different. These comparisons emphasize the significance and greatness of the Russian land, its princes; they allow chroniclers to transfer the narrative from a “temporary” historical plane to an “eternal” one, that is, they perform the artistic function of symbolic generalization. In addition, these comparisons are a means of moral assessment of events and the actions of historical figures.

7. The sermon “the word on law and grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion as an outstanding work of oratory of the 11th century. The theme is the equality of peoples, the glorification of the Russian land and its princes. Three-part composition. Metaphors-symbols, rhetorical questions and exclamations, rhythmic organization of the “Words on Law and Grace”.

"The Sermon on Law and Grace" by Hilarion. An outstanding work of oratorical prose of the 11th century is “The Sermon on Law and Grace.” It was written between 1037-1050. priest of the princely church in Berestov Hilarion.

“The Sermon on Law and Grace” is imbued with the patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus' as equal among all states of the world. Hilarion contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of ​​​​the equality of all Christian peoples. Comparing Judaism (Law) with Christianity (Grace), Hilarion at the beginning of his “Word” proves the advantages of Grace over the Law. The law was distributed only among the Jewish people. Grace is the property of all nations. Old Testament- The law given by God to the prophet Moses on Mount Sinai regulated the life of only the Jewish people. New Testament- Christian doctrine - has worldwide significance, and every people has the full right to freely choose this Grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of Grace. He creates, as D.S. Likhachev rightly notes, his own patriotic concept of world history, glorifying Rus' and its "enlightener" "kagan" Vladimir.

Hilarion exalts Vladimir's feat in accepting and spreading Christianity in Rus'. Thanks to this feat, Rus' entered the family of Christian countries as a sovereign state. Vladimir ruled “not in harm’s way and not in unknown lands”, A “In Russian, which is known and heard by all, there are the ends of the earth.”

In his praise of Vladimir, Hilarion lists the prince’s services to his homeland. He says that his activities contributed to the glory and power of Rus'. At the same time, he emphasizes that the Christian faith was accepted by the Russians as a result of free choice, that the main merit in the baptism of Rus' belongs to Vladimir, and not to the Greeks. The Lay contains a comparison of Vladimir with Tsar Constantine, which was very offensive to the Greeks.

Hilarion’s “Word” is built according to a strict, logically thought-out plan, which is communicated by the author in the title of the work: “The word about the law that Moses gave to him, and about grace and truth, Jesus Christ was, and as the law came, grace and truth filled the whole earth, and faith in all languages ​​​​extended to our Russian language and praise to our kagan Vlodimer, from him And we were baptized and prayed to God from the weight of our earth.”

The first part - a comparison of Law and Grace - is a lengthy introduction to the second, central, part of praise to Vladimir, ending with the author's appeal to Vladimir with a call to rise from the grave, shake off his sleep and look at the deeds of his son George (the Christian name of Yaroslav). The second part aims to directly glorify the ruler of Rus' contemporary to Hilarion and his activities. The third part is a prayer appeal to God "from all our land."

The “Word” is addressed to people “we have had our fill of book sweets”, therefore, the author puts his work into bookish rhetorical form. He constantly uses quotes from the Bible, biblical comparisons, comparing the Law with the slave Hagar and her son Ishmael, and Grace with Sarah and her son Isaac. These symbolic parallels are intended to more clearly demonstrate the superiority of Grace over the Law.

In the first part of the Lay, Hilarion consistently observes the principle of antithesis - the most typical technique of oratorical eloquence. “First the law, then grace: first the steppe(shadow) you, then the truth.”

Hilarion widely uses book metaphors - symbols and metaphorical comparisons: Law is "dry lake"; paganism - “darkness of idols”, “darkness of demonic service”; Grace is "flooded spring" etc. He often uses rhetorical questions and exclamations - typical techniques of solemn eloquence, with the help of which greater emotionality of speech is achieved. The rhythmic organization of the Lay serves the same purpose. Hilarion often resorts to repetitions and verbal rhymes. For example: “... drive away the warriors, establish peace, tame the countries, make gladugobzi, make the Bolyars wise, disperse the cities, grow your church, preserve your property, save husbands and wives and babies.”

High artistic skill ensured “The Word of Law and Grace” great popularity in medieval writing. It becomes a model for scribes of the 12th-15th centuries, who use individual techniques and stylistic formulas of the Lay.

8. Didactic “Instruction” by Vladimir Monomakh” - a work of political and moral instruction. The image of an outstanding politician and warrior. Autobiographical elements in "Instruction". Emotional and lyrical coloring of the work.

“Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, written by him "sitting on a sleigh" that is, shortly before his death, somewhere around 1117, it was attributed by chroniclers to similar wills addressed to children.

The outstanding statesman of the late 11th - early 12th centuries, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1052-1125), through his policies contributed to the temporary cessation of princely strife. He became famous for his successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke of Kyiv in 1113, Monomakh contributed in every possible way to strengthening the unity of the Russian land.

The central idea of ​​the “Instruction” is a call addressed to the children of Monomakh and everyone who will hear "this grammar" strictly observe the requirements of the feudal legal order, be guided by them, and not by personal, selfish family interests. “Instruction” goes beyond the narrow framework of a family will and acquires great social significance.

Using the example of a personal rich life experience Vladimir gives a high example of the prince's service to the interests of his land.

A characteristic feature of the “Teaching” is the close interweaving of didactics with autobiographical elements. Monomakh’s instructions are supported not only by maxims from “ scripture“, but first of all with specific examples from your own life.

The “Teaching” brings to the fore the tasks of a national order. The sacred duty of the prince is concern for the good of his state, its unity, strict and strict observance of oaths and contracts. The prince must “care for the souls of the peasants”, “about the evil stench” And "poor widow." Internecine strife undermines the economic and political power of the state. Only peace leads to the prosperity of a country. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the ruler to maintain peace.

Another equally important duty of the prince, according to Monomakh, is care and concern for the welfare of the church. He understands that the church is the prince's faithful assistant. Therefore, in order to strengthen his power, the prince must vigilantly take care of the priestly and monastic rank. True, Monomakh does not recommend that his children save their souls in a monastery, that is, become a monk. The ascetic monastic ideal is alien to this life-loving, energetic person.

In accordance with Christian morality Vladimir demands a caring attitude towards "poor"(to the poor).

The prince himself must be an example of high morality. The main positive quality of a person is hard work. Labor, in the understanding of Monomakh, is, first of all, military feat, and then hunting, when the body and soul of a person are tempered in the constant struggle against dangers.

Vladimir gives examples from his personal life: he made only 83 large campaigns, and does not remember small ones, he concluded 20 peace treaties. While hunting, he was in constant danger and risked his life more than once: “Tura threw me 2 narozekh and with a horse, a deer was one big, and 2 moose, one trampled with his feet, and the other was a big one; ...a fierce beast jumped onto my hips and the horse fell with me.”

Vladimir considers laziness to be the main vice: “Laziness is the mother of everything: if you know how, you’ll forget, but if you don’t know how, you can’t teach it.”

Monomakh himself appears in his “Teachings” as an unusually active person: “Whatever my youth had to do, I myself did, deeds in war and fishing, night and day, in heat and winter, without giving myself peace.”

One of the positive qualities of the prince is his generosity, constant concern for increasing and spreading his good name.

In everyday life, the prince should be a model for those around him: to visit the sick, to see off the dead, for everyone is mortal. Family relationships should be built on respect between husbands and wives: “Love your wife, but do not give them power over you,” he instructs.

Thus, in the “Instructions” Monomakh covers a fairly wide range of life phenomena. He gives clear answers to many social and moral questions of his time.

At the same time, the “Instruction” is a very valuable material for understanding the personality of the author himself - the first secular writer known to us Ancient Rus'. First of all, he is a well-educated man knowledgeable in literature of its time. In his work, he uses the Psalter, the Book of Psalms, the teachings of Basil the Great, Xenophon and Theodora to children, placed in the “Izbornik 1076”, “Six Days”.

The “Instruction” is built according to a specific plan: an introduction addressed to children, with self-deprecation characteristic of the ancient Russian writer - not to laugh at his writing, but to accept it in your heart, not to scold, but to say that “On the long journey, and sitting on the sleigh, I said a foolish thing,” and finally, a request: “...if you don’t love the last one, take the first one.”

The central didactic part of the “Instruction” begins with a general philosophical discussion about the love of mankind and the mercy of God, about the need for victory over evil and the possibility of this victory, the guarantee of which is the beauty and harmony of the world created by God.

Gives a kind of diary of military campaigns, in a manner reminiscent of brief chronicle weather records, only without dates. Listing your "paths" Vladimir arranges them in chronological order starting from 1072 to 1117.

And again the conclusion follows. When addressing children or others, "who will read" Monomakh asks not to judge him. He praises not himself, not his courage, but praises God, who "thin and sinful" saved from death for so many years and created “not lazy”, “thin”, “all human needs are needed.”

In the style of the “Teaching” one can easily detect, on the one hand, its bookish elements associated with Vladimir’s use of literary sources, and on the other, elements of a living spoken language, especially clearly manifested in the description "paths" and the dangers to which he was exposed during the hunt. A characteristic feature of the “Teaching” style is the presence of polished, vivid, easy-to-remember aphoristic expressions.

In general, the “Instruction” and the letter clearly reveal the appearance of an extraordinary statesman of the Russian Middle Ages, a man in whom the ideal of a prince who cared about the glory and honor of his native land was vividly embodied.

The literature of Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the diversity of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems, about which heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form a love for the Fatherland and one’s people, show the beauty of the Russian land, so these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.

The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. Thus, images, ideas, even the style of writings were inherited by A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy.

Old Russian literature did not arise out of nowhere. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and was due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works to appear in Rus' were translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.

The very first original works, i.e. written by ourselves Eastern Slavs, date back to the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. V. The formation of Russian national literature was taking place, its traditions and features were taking shape, determining its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.

The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.

Features of Old Russian literature

1. Historicism of content.

Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's imagination. Authors works of art, even if they describe the true events of real people, they conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Rus' everything was completely different. The ancient Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the 17th century. Everyday stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Rus'.

Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. Thus, chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Rus'. After the death of Moscow Prince Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to arbitrate their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.

2. Handwritten nature of existence.

Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' changed the situation little until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special veneration of the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to instability ancient Russian works literature. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could last for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as “manuscript” (handwritten text) and “list” (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists various works and can be written either by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “edition,” i.e., the purposeful reworking of a monument caused by socio-political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.

Closely related to the existence of a work in manuscripts is the following: specific trait Old Russian literature as a problem of authorship.

The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muted, implicit. Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the author's ideas and assessments were even replaced by the opposite ones. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.

Old Russian scribes did not at all strive to reveal their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous; the authorship of others has been established by researchers based on indirect evidence. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation.

It happens that in a manuscript one or another text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may or may not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority.

The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian “writer” did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.

4. Literary etiquette.

Well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, Academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term to designate the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”.

Literary etiquette consists of:

From the idea of ​​how this or that course of events should have taken place;

From ideas about how one should behave actor according to your position;

From ideas about what words the writer should have described what was happening.

We have before us the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words. The hero is supposed to behave this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.

Main genres of ancient Russian literature

The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the “poetics of the genre.” It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature the genre did not play such an important role.

A sufficient amount of research has been devoted to the genre uniqueness of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.

1. Hagiographic genre.

Life - a description of the life of a saint.

Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. The Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, that literary form, in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed.

The compositional and verbal forms of life have been refined over the centuries. The high theme - a story about life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of the narrative. The author of the life tells the story excitedly; he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic and his admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality and excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.

When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be three-fold: introduction, story about the life and deeds of the saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks forgiveness from readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narrative, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, or names of historical figures. The action of the life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and specific space; it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.

At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, requiring great literary art, good knowledge of rhetoric.

The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.

2. Eloquence.

Eloquence is an area of ​​creativity characteristic of ancient period development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.

Solemn eloquence required depth of concept and great literary skill. The speaker needed the ability to construct a speech effectively in order to capture the listener, set him in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - “word”. (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called “the Word.”) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and distributed in numerous copies.

Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrow practical goals; it required the formulation of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for creating “words” are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, internal and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.

The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.

Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to people of that time. Church leaders and princes could deliver teachings.

Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes and contain the information a person needs. “Instruction to the Brethren” by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of behavior that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not utter “shameful” words. Go to church and behave quietly in it, honor your elders, judge truthfully, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.

Theodosius of Pechora is the founder of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: do not be late for church, put three prostrations, observe decorum and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora demands complete renunciation from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.

3. Chronicle.

Chronicles were weather records (by “years” - by “years”). The annual entry began with the words: “Into the summer.” After this there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids by steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.

It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.

Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. In those days, it was customary to start telling stories about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to recounting the events of his time. The result of this great job the chronicle was forming. After some time, other chroniclers continued this collection.

Apparently the first large monument The ancient Russian chronicle was compiled in the 11th century by a chronicle collection compiled in the 70s. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).

Nikon's work formed the basis of another chronicle, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature it received the code name "Initial arch". Its nameless compiler replenished Nikon's collection not only with news from recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle of the era was born Kievan Rus- "The Tale of Bygone Years."

It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its probable compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating The Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler used numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. These materials included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.

The compiler of “The Tale of Bygone Years” set as his goal not just to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.

The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement of Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the morals and customs of different tribes. The Tale of Bygone Years emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.

The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. A story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Rus', about the spread new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, and the success of Christian enlightenment occupy a central place in the "Tale".

The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years, suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, sought to imitate him and almost necessarily placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle.

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textual criticism and paleography (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of writing material) can come to the rescue.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

In the 14th century, parchment was replaced by paper. The statutory letter is replaced by a more rounded one.

The issue of periodization of ancient Russian literature has not yet been completely resolved. Undoubtedly, the stages of development of Old Russian literature are closely related to the stages of development of Old Russian people and the state. Taking into account the uniqueness of ideas, original and translated works, main genres and styles, four periods can be distinguished in the history of the development of Old Russian literature (in addition to the initial one):

- Literature of Kievan Rus (11th – first third of the 12th century). Associated with the intensive development of Old Russian writing. Ancient Rus' becomes acquainted with a large number of monuments of translated literature, both canonical, church, and apocryphal, didactic, historical and narrative. During this period, original ancient Russian literature was born and developed. The most important genres are formed - hagiography, didactic and solemn sermon, teaching, description of travel, chronicle, historical and military story, legend. The literature of this period is imbued with the patriotic, civic pathos of love for the great Russian land.

- Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th - mid-13th centuries). Russia breaks up into a number of independent feudal semi-states, and the development of literature takes on a regional character. Literary schools are being created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk. In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, the genres of travel, historical stories, and solemn oratorical eloquence are developing (“words” of Kirill Turovsky, Kliment Smolyatich; “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”).

- Literature from the period of the struggle against foreign invaders and the unification of northeastern Rus' (mid-13th - early 14th centuries). The heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders is clearly reflected. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”. In the literature of this time, the main themes were the struggle against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars - and the strengthening of the Russian state, glorifying the military and moral exploits of the Russian people.

During this period, Epiphanius the Wise revived and raised the emotionally expressive style to a new level of artistic perfection. Further development receives the style of historical narration, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” (“The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”) is strengthened.

In the 15th century, Novgorod literature, as well as the literature of Tver, reached its peak. Afanasy Nikitin’s “Walking across Three Seas” is associated with democratic urban culture.

The literature of this period reflected the main character traits of the emerging Great Russian people: perseverance, heroism, the ability to endure adversity and difficulties, the will to fight and win. Interest in the psychological states of the human soul is growing.

- Literature from the period of strengthening the Russian centralized state (16th – 17th centuries). In the 16th century, the process of merging regional literatures into one common one took place. Two trends are strictly observed: one is the observance of strict rules and canons of writing, church rite, everyday life, the other is a violation of these rules. The latter begins to appear not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical storytelling. Literature, in connection with historical changes (Bolotnikov’s peasant war, the fight against intervention), expands the scope of reality, changes the genre system, and begins to free itself from the belief in divine predestination. The principles of the artistic method of medieval literature - symbolism, etiquette - are being destroyed. The life turns into an everyday biography. Vivid evidence of this is “The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya” and “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks in 1641.” In the second half of the 17th century, the process of secularization of literature, its liberation from the tutelage of the church, and the process of its democratization accelerated. Traditional genres of church and business writing become objects of literary parody (“Kazan Petition” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”). Folklore is rushing into literature in a broad wave. The genres of folk satirical tales, epics, and song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

The process of personal self-awareness is reflected in a new genre - the everyday story, in which a new hero appears - a merchant's son or a rootless nobleman. Together, syllabic poetry, court and school theater appeared, which testifies to the triumph of new beginnings, which prepared the appearance of classicism in Russian literature.

The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo and its reflection in the literature of the late 14th - 15th centuries. chronicle story “Zadonshchina”, “Tale of the life and death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”

The significance of the victory is comprehended in the cycle of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo that developed at the end of the 14th - mid-15th centuries. This cycle includes the chronicle story “The Massacre of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich on the Don with Mamai,” the lyric-epic story “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamai.” All these works are clear evidence of the growth of national self-awareness. They are imbued with the patriotic pathos of glorifying the great victory over foreign enslavers, glorifying the feat of the Russian people and the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich and his cousin Vladimir Andreevich, Prince of Serpukhov and Borovsky. The stories about the Battle of Kulikovo emphasize that the victory was achieved at the cost of enormous sacrifices of the Russian people and that it was the result of the unity and rallying of the main forces of Rus' under the banners of Moscow. The events of 1380 are given in a broad historical perspective: the Battle of Kulikovo is compared with the Battle of Kalka, Mamai is compared with Batu, and the struggle with the Golden Horde is seen as a continuation of the centuries-old struggle of Rus' with the sedate nomads - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians.

ZADONSHCHINA. The poetic story about the Battle of Kulikovo - “Zadonshchina”, which has come down to us in six copies and two editions, was written at the end of the 14th century. The author of this work was usually called Sophony, a Bryansk boyar who later became a priest. But according to Dmitrieva’s observations, it turns out that Zephanius owned another work that has not reached us, which was used by an unknown author when writing “Zadonshchina”. The unknown author set himself the goal of glorifying the victory won in 1380, taking “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a model. He created a song of glory to the victors and honored those who fell on the battlefield with sorrowful lamentation.

In Zadonshchina the course of historical events is not described in detail. The main attention is paid to their meaning and evaluation. It is noteworthy that the author of Zadonshchina saw the inextricable connection of times and events and helped his contemporaries understand this. According to the author’s correct understanding, the Battle of Kulikovo is a continuation of the centuries-old struggle that the “brave Russians” had to wage with the steppe nomads. If Igor’s defeat on Kayal (in the WORD) is the result of feudal strife, the lack of unity of action, then the victory on the Kulikovo Field is the result of overcoming discord, the result of the unity of Russian forces led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich. Under the banners of Moscow, all Russian wars go into battle “for the Russian land, for the Christian faith.” This refrain runs through the entire ZADONSHCHINA,

Zadonshchina consists of two parts: “pity” and “praise”. Zadonshchina begins with a short introduction. It not only sets the readers-listeners in a high, solemn mood, but also determines the main theme of the work - to glorify Dmitry Ivanovich, his brother Vladimir Andreevich and bring sadness to the eastern country. Thus, a genealogical connection between the first Kyiv princes is immediately established in the Transdon region. And Moscow, the new political center of the Russian land, is declared the heir to Kyiv and its culture.

The military valor and courage of the Moscow princes are characterized in ZADONSHCHINA using the same artistic techniques as in the WORD. For example, when characterizing Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Vladimir Andreevich, the author uses several participial phrases in one sentence, which gives the narrative a special smoothness and leisurely pace.

The first part of ZADONSHCHINA - pity, opens with vivid pictures of the gathering of Russian troops, their march, the beginning of the battle and their defeat. The military valor of the Olgerdovichs - Andrei and Dmitry, who came to the aid of the Moscow prince, is glorified in the same way as the valor of the warriors of Bui Tur Vsevolod in the WORD. Nature in the Zadonshchina is on the side of the Russian troops and foreshadows the defeat of the “filthy” ones. Winged birds fly, crows crow, jackdaws cackle, eagles screech, wolves howl. But for Prince Dmitry Ivanovich the sun shines clearly in the east.

The central place in ZADONSHCHINA is given to the depiction of the battle on the Kulikovo Field. The first half of the battle ends with the defeat of the Russians. Russian women mourn fallen soldiers. Their lyrical songs are similar to the famous cry of Yaroslavna.

The second part of ZADONSHCHINA - praise, is devoted to a description of the victory won by Russian troops when the regiment of governor Dmitry Bobrok enters the battle. As a result of the victory, joy and rejoicing spread across the Russian land and Russian glory rose above the blasphemy.

ZADONSHCHINA's narrative style is joyful, major, excitedly pathetic. The author enlivens the narrative with the direct speech of the characters.

In ZADONSHCHINA there are no pagan mythological images at all, but religious and Christian motifs are significantly strengthened. The author puts reflections and prayers into the mouths of the Russian princes; elements of religious fiction are introduced into the narrative (Boris and Gleb say a prayer). Everything testifies to the increased role of the church in the life of the Moscow state.

In ZADONSHCHINA, techniques and poetic images of folk poetry and song rhythms are widely used. So, like eagles, Russian princes flock to the aid of Dmitry Ivanovich. Like falcons and hawks, Russian warriors rush towards the enemy herds of geese and swan. This artistic logic of parallelism is based on impressions associated with hunting, and also gives a clear idea of ​​the superior strength of the Russian troops over the Golden Horde.

In the style of ZADONSHCHINA there are also significant traces of business prose of the 15th century. This is evidenced by chronological clarifications, titles of princes, genealogical formulas, a list of those killed, as well as the monotony of methods for highlighting direct speech. At the same time, ZADONSHCHINA is characterized by a strophic structure, which is emphasized by the same beginnings: “And the prince said to them..”, “And Andrei said...”, “And Dmitry told him.” Zadonshchina is an example of a special kind of folk poem with literary content; its author imitated the “Word” not in a book way, but by playing it by ear and memorizing it. ZADONSHCHINA typologically belongs to lyric-epic works like “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” Ideological plan“Zadonshchiny” is associated with the poeticization of the political role of Moscow and the Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde (apparently, this is why it deliberately does not talk about the betrayal of the Ryazan prince Oleg). The author directed all his pathos towards promoting the idea of ​​unity, the unity of all the forces of the Russian land around Moscow, strongly supporting that only thanks to unity was a historical victory won, and the princes and Russian wars gained for themselves “honor and a glorious name.”

The story of Mamaev's massacre. In the middle of the 15th century, based on the chronicle story about the Battle of Kulikovo, the Zadonshchina and oral traditions, the “Tale of Mamaev's massacre”, which has come down to us in more than a hundred copies, in six editions. The Legend reveals a tendency to fictionalize the narrative and enhance its entertaining nature. The author of the Legend, glorifying the pious thoughts of Dmitry Ivanovich and contrasting them with the thoughts of Mamai, does not strive for the accuracy of historical facts, often allowing anachronisms, and includes fictional monologues in the narrative.

In the Legend you can find many new, sometimes poetic details, for example, in the Legend it is reported that Dmitry sent Zakhary Tyutchev as an ambassador to Mamai, and about the Moscow prince’s visit to the Trinity Monastery.

In the Legend, the fortitude, courage, and Christian piety of the Russians are contrasted with the boasting, arrogance and wickedness of Mamai and his allies.

In the legends about the Battle of Kulikovo, the basis for the moral and aesthetic assessment of the activities of historical figures is the popular idea of ​​​​the unity of the Russian principalities around Moscow. It is significant that in the Legend this idea is interpreted quite broadly and uniquely. It outgrows the actual Russian borders and acquires international significance. According to the author, in the fight against Mamai, the efforts of not only Russian, but also Lithuanian princes should unite.

In the Legend, as in other stories from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, the prince is portrayed in a new way. Previously, the prince was a brave and resilient warrior, a skilled diplomat, but now these qualities are not defining. The main thing in the depiction of the prince is to show his unifying efforts, his overcoming of narrow local interests.

One of the artistic discoveries of the Legend is seen in the fact that the activities of the princes, especially their participation in the Battle of Kulikovo, are presented not only as an all-Russian matter, but also as a family matter. With anxiety and excitement, Russian princesses accompany their husbands to the battle; in this depiction, the Battle of Kulikovo acquires a special power of emotional impact.

The victory on the Kulikovo field over the hordes of Mamai showed that the Russian people have the strength to decisively fight the enemy and these forces can be united and directed by the centralized power of the Grand Duke. The victory strengthened the political authority of Moscow, the center of the emerging state, and the question of the final destruction of the Golden Horde yoke became only a matter of time: a hundred years after the Battle of Kulikovo, in 1480, the yoke was ended.

In this article we will look at the features of Old Russian literature. The literature of Ancient Rus' was primarily church. After all, book culture in Rus' appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries became centers of writing, and the first literary monuments were mainly works of a religious nature. Thus, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion. The author proves the superiority of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.

Literature was created not for entertainment, but for teaching. Considering the features of ancient Russian literature, it should be noted that it is instructive. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.

Let us note one seemingly insignificant feature of ancient Russian literature: it was handwritten. Books were created in a single copy and only then copied by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text became unusable over time. This gave the book special value and generated respect for it. In addition, for the Old Russian reader, all books traced their origins to the main one - the Holy Scriptures.

Since the literature of Ancient Rus' was fundamentally religious, the book was seen as a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction, in the modern sense of the word. She goes out of her way avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality; he hides behind the narrative form. He does not strive for originality; for an ancient Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition, not to break it. Therefore, all lives are similar to one another, all biographies of princes or military stories are compiled according to a general plan, in compliance with the “rules”. When “The Tale of Bygone Years” tells us about Oleg’s death from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like a historical document; the author really believes that everything happened that way.

The hero of ancient Russian literature does not have no personality, no character in our view today. Man's destiny is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul acts as an arena for the struggle between good and evil. The first will win only when a person lives by moral rules given once and for all.

Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because ancient Russian writers did not know how to do this. In the same way, icon painters created planar rather than three-dimensional images, not because they could not write “better”, but because others stood in front of them artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be similar to the usual one human face. An icon is a sign of holiness, not a depiction of a saint.

The literature of Ancient Rus' adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader example of correct behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh behaves like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.

Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids mundaneness: she does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this narrative: no manifestation of feelings, no individual manner. (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not even assume such immodesty - to put your name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? That is why the information available to us about ancient authors is so scarce.

At the same time, in ancient Russian literature a special national ideal of beauty, captured by ancient scribes. First of all, this is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to Western European literature of the same era, the knightly ideal of beauty - the beauty of weapons, armor, and victorious battle - is much less represented. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. War for the sake of glory and profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Peace is assessed as an unconditional good. The ancient Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide expanse, an immense, “decorated” earth, and it is decorated with temples, because they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.

The attitude of ancient Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty to oral and poetic creativity, folklore. On the one hand, folklore was of pagan origin, and therefore did not fit into the framework of the new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not help but penetrate literature. After all, the written language in Rus' from the very beginning was Russian, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impassable border between the book and the spoken word. Folk ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ideas; Christianity penetrated folklore almost unhindered. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to take shape in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as patriotic warriors and as defenders Christian faith, surrounded by “filthy” pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, ancient Russian writers use folklore images and stories.

The religious literature of Rus' quickly outgrew its narrow church framework and became truly spiritual literature, which created a whole system of genres. Thus, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” belongs to the genre of a solemn sermon delivered in church, but Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic ones.

Genre of life

The most important genre for ancient Russian literature was the hagiography, the biography of a saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of a saint canonized by the church, to create an image ideal person for the edification of all people.

IN " Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb"Prince Gleb appeals to his killers with a request to spare him: “Do not cut the ear, which is not yet ripe, filled with the milk of goodness! Do not cut the vine, which is not yet fully grown, but bears fruit!” Abandoned by his squad, Boris in his tent “cries with a broken heart, but is joyful in his soul”: he is afraid of death and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who accepted martyrdom for their faith.

IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh“It is said that the future saint in his adolescence had difficulty comprehending literacy, lagged behind his peers in learning, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired into the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the last piece of bread to the beast.

In the traditions of life in the 16th century, “ The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”, but it already sharply diverged from the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of lives of the “Great Chet-Minea” along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. The author of the 16th century produced not a hagiography, but an entertaining story, built on fairy-tale motifs, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not just their Christian deeds.

A " Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself in the 17th century, turned into a bright autobiographical work filled with authentic events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the bright character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.

Genre of teaching

Since religious literature was intended to educate a true Christian, teaching became one of the genres. Although this is a church genre, close to a sermon, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the ideas of the people of that time about the correct, righteous life did not differ from the church ones. You know" Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117 "while sitting on a sleigh" (shortly before his death) and addressed to children.

The ideal ancient Russian prince appears before us. He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. The prince's other concern is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as work to save the soul. This is the work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental work. Hard work is the main virtue in Monomakh’s life. He made eighty-three major campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, learned five languages, and did what his servants and warriors did.

Chronicles

A significant, if not the largest, part of ancient Russian literature is works of historical genres that were included in the chronicles. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years""was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of Rus''s right to state independence, independence. But if the chroniclers could record recent events "according to the epics of this time", reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be restored according to oral sources: traditions, legends, sayings, geographical names. Therefore, the chroniclers turn to folklore. These are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, etc.

Already in The Tale of Bygone Years two the most important features Old Russian literature: patriotism and connection with folklore. Book-Christian and folklore-pagan traditions are closely intertwined in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Elements of fiction and satire

Of course, ancient Russian literature was not unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, and satirical motifs increasingly penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. These are, for example, " The Tale of Misfortune", showing what troubles disobedience and the desire to “live as he pleases,” and not as his elders teach, can bring a person, and “ The Tale of Ersha Ershovich", ridiculing the so-called "voivode's court" in the tradition of a folk tale.

But in general, we can talk about the literature of Ancient Rus' as a single phenomenon, with its own enduring ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its own general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.

Medieval picture of the world.

Since the adoption of Christianity, Russian ancient and medieval culture has been characterized by the concepts of holiness, conciliarity, sophia, and spirituality. The categories of personality and transformation, light, and luminosity acquired particular aesthetic significance in the traditional picture of the world of Medieval Rus'.
Many religious, Orthodox values ​​entered the ancient Russian picture of the world quite organically and naturally and became entrenched in it for a long time. First of all, it should be noted that the assimilation and understanding of Christian dogma and cult, and all worship, proceeded to a greater extent in the language of artistic imagery as the closest to the consciousness of ancient Russian people. God, spirit, holiness were perceived not as theological concepts, but rather as aesthetic and praxeological categories, more as living (mythological, according to A. F. Losev) rather than as symbolic.
Beauty was perceived in Rus' as an expression of the true and essential. Negative, unseemly phenomena were considered as deviations from the truth. As something transitory, not related to essence and therefore actually having no existence. Art acted as the bearer and exponent of the eternal and imperishable - absolute spiritual values. This is one of its most characteristic features and, moreover, one of the main principles of ancient Russian artistic thinking in general - Sophia art, which consists in the deep feeling and awareness by the ancient Russians of the unity of art, beauty and wisdom and in the amazing ability of Russian medieval artists and scribes to express artistic means the basic spiritual values ​​of one’s picture of the world, the essential problems of existence in their universal significance.
Art and wisdom were seen by the people of Ancient Rus' as inextricably linked; and the terms themselves were perceived almost as synonyms. Art was not conceived by the wise, and this applied equally to the art of speech, icon painting or architecture. Starting his work, opening the first page, the Russian scribe asked God for the gift of wisdom, the gift of insight, the gift of speech, and this plea was by no means just a traditional tribute to the rhetorical fashion of his time. It contained true faith in the Divinity of creative inspiration, in the high purpose of art. .
The best expressive means sophia of ancient Russian artistic and religious painting peace served as an icon. The icon, this “window” into the world of spiritual, transcendental religions, was also one of the most important paths to God. At the same time, in Rus', not only the direction of this path from the bottom up (from man to the “mountain world”) was highly valued, but also back - from God to man. God was understood by medieval Russian consciousness as the focus of all positive properties and characteristics of the “earthly” understanding of good, virtue, moral and aesthetic perfection, brought to the limit of idealization, that is, acting as an ideal extremely removed from human earthly existence. Among its main characteristics, holiness, “honesty,” purity, and luminosity most often appear—the main values ​​on which religion is based.
Another component of the traditional picture of the world - holiness - in the broadest Old Russian Orthodox understanding is sinlessness, and in strictly speaking"God alone is holy." In relation to a person, holiness means a state that is as far removed from sin as possible; It also means a state of special isolation of a person from the general mass. This singularity (or separation) is manifested in extraordinary good deeds of the individual, in speeches marked by wisdom and insight, and in amazing spiritual qualities. After accepting Christianity in ancient Russian spirituality Next to the holy heroes appear heroes of a very special kind - passion-bearers. The first Russian passion-bearers are Boris and Gleb. However, brothers, warrior princes do not perform valiant feats of arms. Moreover, in a moment of danger, they deliberately leave the sword in its sheath and voluntarily accept death. The images of the passion-bearing saints were, in the words of G.P. Fedotov, a genuine religious discovery of the newly baptized Russian people. Why?
Old Russian man I saw, first of all, in the behavior of Boris and Gleb, a readiness for the unconditional implementation of Christian ideals: humility, meekness, love for one’s neighbor, even to the point of self-sacrifice, revealed not in words, but in deeds.

Features of Old Russian literature.

Russian literature XI-XVII centuries. developed under unique conditions. It was entirely handwritten. Printing, which appeared in Moscow in the middle of the 16th century, very little changed the nature and methods of distributing literary works.

The handwritten nature of literature led to its variability. When rewriting, scribes made their own amendments, changes, abbreviations, or, conversely, developed and expanded the text. As a result, the monuments of ancient Russian literature for the most part did not have a stable text. New editions and new types of works appeared in response to new demands of life and arose under the influence of changes in literary tastes.

The reason for the free handling of monuments was also the anonymity of ancient Russian monuments. The concept of literary property and author's monopoly was absent in Ancient Rus'. Literary monuments were not signed, since the author considered himself only a performer God's will. The literary monuments were not dated, but the time of writing of this or that work is established with an accuracy of five to ten years using the chronicle, where all the events of Russian history are accurately recorded, and this or that work, as a rule, appeared “hot on the heels of the events” of history itself .

Old Russian literature is traditional. Author literary work"dresses" this topic in a corresponding “literary outfit”. As a result, the works of Ancient Rus' are not fenced off from each other by strict boundaries, their text is not fixed by precise ideas about literary property. This creates some illusion of inhibition literary process. Old Russian literature developed strictly according to traditional genres: hagiographical, apocryphal, circulation genre, teachings of the church fathers, historical stories, didactic literature. All these genres are translated. Along with translated genres, the first Russian original genre appeared in the 11th century - chronicle writing.

Old Russian literature is characterized by “medieval historicism”, therefore artistic generalization in Ancient Rus' is built on the basis of a single specific historical fact. The work is always attached to a specific historical person, while any historical event receives a purely church interpretation, that is, the outcome of the event depends on the will of God, who either has mercy or punishes. The “medieval historicism” of Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries is in connection with another important feature of it, which has been preserved and developed in Russian literature up to the present day - its citizenship and patriotism.

Called to consider reality, follow this reality and evaluate it, the ancient Russian writer already in the 11th century perceived his work as work of service to his native country. Old Russian literature has always been particularly serious, trying to answer the basic questions of life, calling for its transformation, and possessing diverse and always high ideals.

Peculiarities.

1. Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland.

2. main topic ancient Russian literature - world history and the meaning of human life.

3. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil.

4. Characteristic feature Old Russian literature is historicism. The heroes are mainly historical figures. Literature strictly follows fact.

5. Feature artistic creativity The ancient Russian writer also has the so-called “literary etiquette”. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be depicted.

6. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing and is based on book Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, and visual means of folk art.

7. The originality of ancient Russian literature in the depiction of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created.

8. In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was the “use” of the genre, the “practical purpose” for which this or that work was intended.

The originality of ancient Russian literature:

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textual criticism and paleography (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of writing material) can come to the rescue.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or legend, hagiography or church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper echelons of feudal society. However, it could not help but show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings or in the forms of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature vividly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected national interests, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

Features of Old Russian works

1. The books were written in Old Russian. There were no punctuation marks, all words were written together.

2. Artistic images were influenced by the church. Mostly the exploits of saints were described.

3. Monks wrote books. The writers were very literate; they had to know the ancient Greek language and the Bible.

3. In ancient Russian literature there was a large number of genres: chronicles, historical stories, lives of saints, words. There were also translated works of a religious nature.
One of the most common genres is the chronicle.