What psychologism is, the concept will not give a complete idea. Examples from works of art should be given. But, in short, psychologism in literature is the depiction of the hero’s inner world using various means. The author uses systems that allow him to deeply and in detail reveal the character’s state of mind.

Concept

Psychologism in literature is the author’s transmission to the reader of the inner world of his characters. Other forms of art also have the ability to convey sensations and feelings. But literature, thanks to its imagery, has the ability to depict a person’s state of mind down to the smallest detail. The author, trying to describe the hero, gives details of his appearance and the interior of the room. Often in literature, a technique such as landscape is used to convey the psychological state of characters.

Poetry

Psychologism in literature is the disclosure of the inner world of heroes, which can have a different character. In poetry, it usually has an expressive quality. The lyrical hero conveys his feelings or carries out psychological introspection. Objective knowledge of a person’s inner world in a poetic work is almost impossible. conveyed quite subjectively. The same can be said about dramatic works, where the hero’s inner experiences are conveyed through monologues.

A striking example of psychologism in poetry is Yesenin’s poem “The Black Man.” In this work, although the author conveys his own feelings and thoughts, he does so somewhat detached, as if observing himself from the outside. The lyrical hero in the poem is having a conversation with a certain person. But at the end of the work it turns out that there is no interlocutor. Black man symbolizes sick consciousness, pangs of conscience, the oppression of mistakes made.

Prose

Psychologism fiction received special development in the nineteenth century. Prose has a wide range of possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. Psychologism in Russian literature has become the subject of study by domestic and Western researchers. The techniques used by Russian writers of the nineteenth century were borrowed by later authors in their work.

The systems of images that can be found in the novels of Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky have become an example to be followed by writers all over the world. But you should know that psychologism in literature is a feature that can only be present if the human personality is a great value. He is unable to develop in a culture characterized by authoritarianism. In literature, which serves to impose any ideas, there is not and cannot be an image of the psychological state of an individual.

Psychologism of Dostoevsky

How does the artist reveal the inner world of his hero? In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” the reader gets to know Raskolnikov’s emotions and feelings through the description of his appearance, the interior of the room, and even the image of the city. In order to reveal everything that happens in the soul of the main character, Dostoevsky does not limit himself to presenting his thoughts and statements.

The author shows the situation in which Raskolnikov finds himself. A small closet, reminiscent of a closet, symbolizes the failure of his idea. Sonya's room, on the contrary, is spacious and bright. But most importantly, Dostoevsky pays special attention to the eyes. In Raskolnikov they are deep and dark. Sonya's are meek and blue. And, for example, nothing is said about Svidrigailov’s eyes. Not because the author forgot to describe the appearance of this hero. Rather, the point is that, according to Dostoevsky, people like Svidrigailov have no soul at all.

Tolstoy's psychologism

Each hero in the novels “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina” is an example of how subtly a master of artistic expression can convey not only the torment and experiences of the hero, but also the life he led before the events described. Techniques of psychologism in literature can be found in the works of German, American, and French authors. But Leo Tolstoy's novels are based on a system of complex images, each of which is revealed through dialogues, thoughts, and details. What is psychologism in literature? Examples are scenes from the novel Anna Karenina. The most famous of them is the horse racing scene. Using the example of the death of a horse, the author reveals Vronsky’s selfishness, which subsequently leads to the death of the heroine.

Anna Karenina’s thoughts after her trip to Moscow are quite complex and ambiguous. Having met her husband, she suddenly notices irregular shape his ears - a detail that I had not paid attention to before. Of course, it is not this feature of Karenin’s appearance that repels his wife. But with the help of a small detail, the reader learns how painful it becomes for the heroine family life, filled with hypocrisy and devoid of mutual understanding.

Chekhov's psychologism

The psychologism of Russian literature of the 19th century is so pronounced that in the works of some authors of this period the plot fades into the background. This feature can be observed in the stories of Anton Chekhov. Events in these works do not play a major role.

Forms of psychological image

Psychologism in the literature of the 19th century is expressed using various All of them can have both direct meaning and indirect meaning. If the text says that the hero blushed and lowered his head, then we're talking about about the direct form of psychological image. But in the works classical literature More complex artistic details are also often found. In order to understand and analyze the indirect form of psychological depiction, the reader must have a sufficiently developed imagination.

In Bunin's story "Mr. from San Francisco" the hero's inner world is conveyed through the depiction of a landscape. The main character in this work says nothing at all. Moreover, he doesn't even have a name. But the reader understands from the first lines what he is and what his way of thinking is.

Psychologism in the prose of foreign authors

Bunin was inspired to write a story about a rich and unhappy man from San Francisco by a novel by Thomas Mann. in one of his small works he depicted psychological condition a man who dies for the sake of passion and lust in a city engulfed by an epidemic.

The novella is called "Death in Venice." There is no dialogue in it. The hero's thoughts are expressed using direct speech. But the author conveys the internal torment of the main character with the help of many symbols. The hero meets a man in a frightening mask, which seems to warn him of mortal danger. Venice - a beautiful ancient city - is shrouded in stench. And in this case, the landscape symbolizes the destructive power of lustful passion.

"Flying over Cuckoo's Nest"

Wrote a book that became a cult favorite. In a novel about a man who ends up in a psychiatric clinic in order to avoid imprisonment, the main idea is not tragic fate heroes. A hospital for the mentally ill symbolizes a society in which fear and lack of will reign. People are unable to change anything and resign themselves to the authoritarian regime. McMurphy symbolizes strength, determination and fearlessness. This person is capable of, if not changing fate, then at least trying to do it.

The author can convey the psychological state of the characters in just one or two lines. An example of this technique is a fragment from Kesey's novel in which McMurphy makes a bet. Since it seems obvious to others that he will not be able to win the argument, they are happy to place bets. He's losing. Gives money. And then he says the key phrase: “But I still tried, I at least tried.” With this small detail, Ken Kesey conveys not only McMurphy's mindset and character, but also the psychological state of other characters. These people are not able to take a decisive step. It’s easier for them to be in unbearable conditions, but not take risks.

Each type of literature has its own possibilities for revealing the inner world of a person. Thus, in lyrics, psychologism is expressive in nature; In it, as a rule, it is impossible to “look from the outside” at a person’s mental life. The lyrical hero either directly expresses his feelings and emotions, or engages in psychological introspection, reflection, or, finally, indulges in lyrical reflection and meditation. The subjectivity of lyrical psychologism makes it, on the one hand, very expressive and deep, and on the other hand, it limits its capabilities in understanding the inner world of a person. In part, such restrictions also apply to psychologism in drama, since the main way of reproducing the inner world in it is the monologues of the characters, which are in many ways similar to lyrical statements. Other methods of revealing a person’s mental life in drama began to be used quite late, in the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. These are techniques such as gestural and facial behavior of characters, features of mise-en-scène, intonation pattern of a role, creation of a certain psychological atmosphere with the help of scenery, sound and noise design, etc. However, under all circumstances, dramaturgical psychologism is limited by the conventions inherent in this literary genre.

The epic genre of literature, which has developed a very perfect structure, has the greatest potential for depicting the inner world of man. psychological forms and techniques.

Psychologism as a conscious aesthetic principle, a stylistic dominant in the work of specific writers, is realized in certain forms. As a result of observations of extensive art material many researchers come to the conclusion that, with all their diversity, they can nevertheless be brought into some kind of system.

Modern literary criticism identifies three main forms of manifestation of psychologism in literature. Two of these forms were designated by I. Strakhov, who argued that the main forms of psychological analysis can be divided into portrayal of characters from the inside, i.e. by artistic knowledge the inner world of the characters, which is expressed through internal speech, images of memory and imagination, as well as on psychological analysis"from outside", expressed in the writer’s psychological interpretation of the expressive features of speech, speech behavior, facial expressions and other means of manifestation of the psyche.

A. B. Esin suggests calling the first form of psychological image “ straight", and the second " indirect”, since in it we learn about the hero’s inner world not directly, but through external symptoms of a psychological state.

L. Ya. Ginzburg also talks about two main methods of psychological analysis - direct (in the form of the author’s reflections, self-analysis of the characters) and indirect (through the depiction of gestures and actions that the reader must interpret).

With some differences in details, researchers, however, actually speak of two dominant forms of psychologism in the literature:

1. A depiction of a person’s inner life “from the outside”, from the point of view of an outside observer, through a description, characterization of the external manifestations of certain emotions, states - facial expressions, gestures, actions, psychological picture and landscape, etc. The reader must comprehend, compare the facts offered to him and draw conclusions about what is happening in the soul of the hero of the work - indirect form.

2. The hero is revealed “from within” - through internal monologue, confession, diaries, letters in which he himself talks about his condition, or through direct author’s comments, reflections on the character’s feelings - straight form.

In essence, both forms are analytical. In the first case, analysis turns out to be the prerogative of the reader's consciousness. Of course, this is only possible if the writer himself has done a great deal of work in the process of writing the work. research work, penetrating into the hidden recesses of the souls of his characters, hidden from external view, and found their adequate external manifestations. In fact, analysis in this form is present implicitly, as if behind the text of the work of art itself. In the second case, the analysis is presented explicitly, manifested in the very fabric of the artistic narrative.

A. B. Esin points out the possibility of another, third way to inform the reader about the thoughts and feelings of the character - with the help of naming, extremely short designation those processes that take place in his inner world, and proposes to call this form of psychologism “ summarily denoting". The researcher states: “<…>the same psychological state can be reproduced using different forms psychological image. You can, for example, say: “I was offended by Karl Ivanovich because he woke me up” - this will be a summary form. Can be depicted external signs grievances: tears, frowning eyebrows, stubborn silence - this is an indirect form. But you can, as Tolstoy did, reveal a psychological state using a direct form of psychological image.” The “summary-designating” form does not imply analytical efforts on the part of the reader - the feeling is precisely named and designated. There are no attempts here by the author to artistically comprehend the laws of the internal process, to trace its stages.

P. Skaftymov wrote about this method, comparing the features of the psychological image in Stendhal and L. Tolstoy: “Stendhal mainly follows the path of verbal designation of feelings. Feelings are named, but not shown." Tolstoy, according to the scientist, traces the process of feeling through time and thereby recreates it with greater liveliness and artistic power.

A. B. Esin believes that one can speak about psychologism as a special, qualitatively defined phenomenon that characterizes the originality of the style of a given work of art or writer only when a “direct” form of depicting mental movements and thought processes appears in literature and becomes dominant, in including those that do not or do not always find external expression. At the same time, the “summary-designating form” does not leave literature, but enters into interaction with “direct” and “indirect”, which enriches and deepens each of them.

Psychologist Vida Gudonienė adheres to the same three-stage division of forms of psychological analysis, noting that the direct form of psychologism is achieved through self-disclosure - the flow of thoughts and feelings in the consciousness and subconscious of a literary character (through an internal monologue, diary entries, dreams, confessions of the character and such a technique as “ mindflow") . Indirect psychologism is a description of facial expressions, speech, gestures and other signs of the external manifestation of the hero’s psychology. The summary-designating form of psychological analysis according to V. Gudonen appears in a literary work in the case when the author not only names the character’s feelings, but also talks about them in the form indirect speech, using media such as portrait and landscape.

Each form of psychological image has different cognitive, visual and expressive capabilities.

In addition to forms, they are subject to the task of deep mastery and reproduction of the inner world. techniques And ways images of a person, everything artistic media at the disposal of the writer. All scientists studying the problems of psychologism, to one degree or another, touched upon the issues of using techniques, methods, and artistic means of revealing the inner world of characters, but considered these issues at an empirical, and not a systemic general theoretical level.

The difficulty of systematizing the techniques and methods of psychologism in literature is evidenced by the attempt to study this problem in the works of Esin. He notes that there are many methods of psychological depiction: this is the organization of the narrative, the use of artistic details, and ways of describing the inner world, etc.

To evaluate psychological analysis, it is also extremely important to take into account how the narration is conducted in a literary work, that is, what narrative-compositional form the work has.

According to Esin, the story of a person’s inner life can be told both from first, and from third party Moreover, the first form is historically earlier (until the end of the 18th century it was considered the most widespread and appropriate). These forms have different capabilities. First-person narration creates a greater illusion of verisimilitude psychological picture, because a person talks about himself. In some cases, such a story takes on the character of a confession, which enhances the artistic impression. This narrative form is used mainly when the work has one main character, whose consciousness and psyche are followed by the author and the reader, and the other characters are secondary, and their inner world is practically not depicted (“Confession” by J.-J. Rousseau, autobiographical trilogy L. N. Tolstoy, “Teenager” by F. M. Dostoevsky, etc.).

Third person narration has its advantages in depicting the inner world. This is precisely the form that allows the author, without any restrictions, to introduce the reader into the inner world of the character and show it in detail and deeply. With this method of narration, for the author there are no secrets in the hero’s soul: he knows everything about him, can trace in detail the internal processes, explain the cause-and-effect relationship between impressions, thoughts, and experiences. The narrator can comment on the course of psychological processes and their meaning as if from the outside, talk about those mental movements that the hero himself does not notice or which he does not want to admit to himself. At the same time, the narrator can psychologically interpret the external behavior of the hero, his facial expressions, body movements, changes in the portrait, etc.

Third-person narration provides very wide opportunities for incorporating a variety of psychological depiction techniques into a work: internal monologues, intimate and public confessions, excerpts from diaries, letters, dreams, visions, etc. can easily and freely fit into such a narrative element.

Third person narration deals most freely with artistic time: it can dwell for a long time on the analysis of fleeting psychological states and very briefly inform about long periods that do not carry a psychological load and have, for example, the nature of plot connections. This makes it possible to increase the “specific weight” of the psychological image in common system narrative, switch the reader's interest from the details of the action to the details of mental life. In addition, the psychological image in these conditions can reach extreme detail and exhaustive completeness: a psychological state that lasts minutes, or even seconds, can stretch out into several pages in the narration about it; Perhaps the most striking example of this is the episode of Praskukhin’s death noted by N.G. Chernyshevsky in “ Sevastopol stories» Tolstoy.

Finally, third-person psychological narration makes it possible to depict the inner world of not one, but several characters, which is much more difficult to do with another method.

A special narrative form, which was often used by psychological writers of the 19th–20th centuries, is improperly direct inner speech. This is a speech that formally belongs to the author (narrator), but bears the imprint of stylistic and psychological characteristics hero's speech. The words of the hero are woven into the words of the author (narrator), without standing out in any way in the text.

With this technique, words appear in the text of the work that are characteristic of the thinking of the hero, and not the narrator, and the structural speech features of inner speech are imitated: double train of thoughts, fragmentation, pauses, rhetorical questions(all this is characteristic of inner speech), the hero’s direct address to himself is used. The form of inappropriately direct inner speech, in addition to diversifying the narrative, makes it more psychologically rich and intense: the entire speech fabric of the work turns out to be “saturated” with the inner word of the hero.

Third-person narration with the inclusion of direct internal speech of the characters somewhat distances the author and reader from the character, or, perhaps, more precisely, it is neutral in this regard and does not imply any specific author’s and reader’s position. The author's commentary on the character's thoughts and feelings is clearly separated from the internal monologue. Thus, the position of the author is quite sharply separated from the position of the character, so that there can be no question of the individuality of the author (and, further, the reader) and the hero being combined. Improperly direct inner speech, which seems to have dual authorship - the narrator and the hero - on the contrary, actively contributes to the emergence of the author's and reader's empathy for the hero. The thoughts and experiences of the narrator, hero and reader seem to merge, and the character’s inner world becomes clear.

Techniques of psychological depiction include psychological analysis And introspection. Their essence is that complex mental states are decomposed into elements and thereby explained and become clear to the reader.

Psychological analysis is used in third-person narration, introspection is used in both first- and third-person narration, as well as in the form of indirect inner speech.

An important and frequently encountered technique of psychologism is internal monologue– direct recording and reproduction of the hero’s thoughts, more or less imitating the real psychological patterns of inner speech. Using this technique, the author seems to “overhear” the hero’s thoughts in all their naturalness, unintentionality and rawness. The psychological process has its own logic, it is whimsical, and its development is largely subject to intuition, irrational associations, seemingly unmotivated convergence of ideas, etc. All this is reflected in internal monologues.

In addition, the internal monologue usually reproduces the speech style of a given character, and therefore his manner of thinking. The scientist notes such features of the internal monologue as subordination to intuition, irrational associations, its ability to reproduce the character’s speech style, and his manner of thinking.

D. Urnov considers a monologue as a statement of the hero addressed to himself, directly reflecting the internal psychological process.

T. Motyleva notes that the internal monologue of many writers became a way to reveal the essential in a person, that essential thing that sometimes is not expressed loudly and hides from human gaze.

Close to the internal monologue is such a technique of psychologism as “ mindflow", this is an internal monologue taken to its logical limit. “Stream of consciousness” represents the ultimate degree, the extreme form of internal monologue. This technique creates the illusion of an absolutely chaotic, disordered movement of thoughts and feelings. L. Tolstoy was one of the first to use it in his work.

In the works of a number of writers of the 20th century. (many of whom came to this technique on their own) it became the main one, and sometimes the only form psychological image. Classic in this regard is the novel by J. Joyce “Ulysses”, in which the stream of consciousness has become the dominant element of the narrative (for example, in the final chapter “Penelope” - Molly Bloom’s monologue - there are not even punctuation marks).

Simultaneously with the quantitative growth (increasing the proportion in the structure of the narrative), the principle of the stream of consciousness also changed qualitatively: in it, moments of spontaneity, rawness, and illogicality of human thinking intensified. The latter circumstance sometimes made individual fragments of works simply incomprehensible. In general, the active use of the stream of consciousness was an expression of the general hypertrophy of psychologism in the work of many writers of the 20th century. (M. Proust, W. Wolfe, early Faulkner, later N. Sarraute, F. Mauriac, and in Russian literature- F. Gladkov, I. Ehrenburg, partly A. Fadeev, early L. Leonov, etc.).

With increased attention to the forms of psychological processes in the works of these writers, the moral and philosophical content was largely lost, so in most cases, sooner or later there was a return to more traditional methods of psychological depiction; Thus, the emphasis moved from the formal to the substantive side of psychologism.

Another technique of psychologism is "dialectics of the soul" This term was first applied to the early work of L. Tolstoy by N. Chernyshevsky, who saw the essence of this principle in the writer’s ability to show how some feelings and thoughts develop from others; “...how a feeling, directly arising from a given situation or impression, subject to the influence of memories and the strength of impressions represented by the imagination, passes into other feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and again and again wanders, changing along the entire chain of memories; how a thought, born of the first sensation, leads to other thoughts, is carried away further and further, merges dreams with actual sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.” The “dialectics of the soul” is understood as a depiction of the very process of mental life; the processes of formation of thoughts, feelings, experiences of the characters, their interweaving and influence on each other are specifically and fully reproduced. Special attention from now on, attention is paid not only to consciousness, but also to the subconscious, which often moves a person, changes his behavior and train of thoughts. But if you show such a chaotic inner world of a person, you may encounter an absolute misunderstanding of it. Therefore, to streamline this flow of thoughts and states of the hero, Tolstoy applies the principle of analytical explanation. The writer breaks down all complex psychological states into components, but at the same time preserves in the reader a feeling of unity, simultaneity of these components of the phenomenon.

One of the techniques of psychologism is artistic detail. In the system of psychologism, almost any external detail is somehow correlated with internal processes and in one way or another serves the purposes of psychological depiction.

With the non-psychological principle of writing, external details are completely independent; within the limits of the artistic form, they are completely self-sufficient and directly embody the features of a given artistic content. Psychologism, on the contrary, makes external details work to depict the inner world. External details in psychologism, of course, retain their function of directly reproducing vital characteristics, directly expressing artistic content. But they also acquire another the most important function– accompany and frame psychological processes. Objects and events enter the stream of thoughts of the characters, stimulate thought, are perceived and emotionally experienced.

External details (portrait, landscape, the world of things) have long been used to psychologically depict mental states in the system of an indirect form of psychologism.

Thus, portrait details (such as “he turned pale,” “blushed,” “he hung his head violently,” etc.) conveyed the psychological state “directly”; in this case, naturally, it was understood that this or that portrait detail was unambiguously correlated with this or that mental movement. Subsequently, details of this kind acquired greater sophistication and lost psychological unambiguity, becoming enriched with overtones, and revealed the ability to “play” on the discrepancy between the external and internal, to individualize the psychological image in relation to an individual character. The portrait characteristic in the system of psychologism is enriched with the author's commentary, clarifying epithets, psychologically deciphered, and sometimes, on the contrary, encrypted so that the reader himself works to interpret this facial or gestural movement.

Among the artistic details with the help of which the external manifestations of the hero’s inner life are shown, A. B. Esin includes facial expressions, plasticity, gestures, speech to the listener, physiological changes, etc. Reproduction of external manifestations of experience is one of ancient forms mastering the inner world, but in the system of non-psychological writing it is capable of giving only the most schematic and superficial drawing of the state of mind, while in the psychological style the details of external behavior, facial expressions, and gestures become an equal and very productive form of deep psychological analysis. This happens for the following reasons.

Firstly, the external detail loses its monopoly position in the system of means of psychological depiction. This is no longer its only or even its main form, as in non-psychological styles, but one of many, and not the most important: the leading place is occupied by the internal monologue and the author’s narration about hidden mental processes. The writer always has the opportunity to comment on a psychological detail and explain its meaning.

Secondly, the individualization of psychological states mastered in literature leads to the fact that their external expression also loses its stereotyping, becomes unique and inimitable, his for every person and for every shade of condition. It’s one thing when literature depicts the same schematic manifestations of feelings and emotions for everyone and does not go further, and quite another when it depicts, say, a carefully individualized external facial touch, not in isolation, but in combination with other forms of analysis that penetrate depth, into the hidden and not receiving external expression.

External details are used only as one type of psychological image - primarily because not everything in a person’s soul can be expressed in his behavior, voluntary or involuntary movements, facial expressions, etc. Such moments of inner life as intuition, guesswork , suppressed volitional impulses, associations, memories cannot be depicted through external expression.

Details landscape also very often have psychological meaning. It has long been noted that certain states of nature are somehow correlated with certain human feelings and experiences: the sun - with joy, rain - with sadness, etc. Therefore, landscape details from the very early stages developments in literature have been successfully used to create a certain psychological atmosphere in a work or as a form of indirect psychological depiction, when the hero’s state of mind is not described directly, but is, as it were, “transmitted” to the nature around him, and this technique is often accompanied by psychological parallelism or comparison. In the further development of literature, this technique became more and more sophisticated; the opportunity was mastered not directly, but indirectly to correlate emotional movements with one or another state of nature. At the same time, the character’s state may correspond to him, or, on the contrary, may contrast with him.

An external detail may by itself, without correlation and interaction with the hero’s inner world, mean nothing at all, have no independent meaning - a phenomenon completely impossible for a non-psychological style. Thus, the famous oak tree in “War and Peace” as such does not represent anything and does not embody any character. Only becoming the impression of Prince Andrei, one of key points in his thoughts and experiences, this external detail takes on artistic meaning.

External details may not directly enter into the process of the characters’ inner life, but only indirectly relate to it. Very often, such a correlation is observed when using a landscape in the system of psychological writing, when the character’s mood corresponds to a particular state of nature or, conversely, contrasts with it.

Unlike portrait and landscape, details "material" world began to be used for the purpose of psychological depiction much later - in Russian literature, in particular, only to end of the 19th century V. Chekhov achieved rare psychological expressiveness of this type of detail in his work. He "pays primary attention to those impression, which his heroes receive from their environment, from the everyday conditions of their own and other people’s lives, and depicts these impressions as symptoms of the changes that occur in the minds of the heroes.”

Finally, another method of psychologism, somewhat paradoxical at first glance, is default method. It consists in the fact that at some point the writer says nothing at all about the hero’s inner world, forcing the reader to conduct a psychological analysis himself, hinting that the hero’s inner world, although it is not directly depicted, is still quite rich and Deserves attention. A striking example is an excerpt from Raskolnikov’s last conversation with Porfiry Petrovich in Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment. This is the culmination of the dialogue: the investigator has just directly announced to Raskolnikov that he considers him the murderer; nervous tension stage participants reaches its climax:

“It wasn’t me who killed,” Raskolnikov whispered, like frightened little children when they are captured at the scene of a crime.

“No, it’s you, Rodion Romanych, you, sir, and there’s no one else,” Porfiry whispered sternly and with conviction.

They both fell silent, and the silence lasted even strangely long, about ten minutes. Raskolnikov leaned his elbows on the table and silently ran his fingers through his hair. Porfiry Petrovich sat quietly and waited. Suddenly Raskolnikov looked contemptuously at Porfiry.

– Again, you’re up to the old standards, Porfiry Petrovich! All for the same tricks of yours: how can you not get tired of this, really?”

It is obvious that in these ten minutes that the heroes spent in silence, psychological processes did not stop. And, of course, Dostoevsky had every opportunity to depict them in detail: to show what Raskolnikov thought, how he assessed the situation, and what psychological state he was in. But there is no psychological image as such here, and yet the scene is obviously saturated with psychologism.

The technique of silence became most widespread in the works of Chekhov, and after him in the works of many other writers of the 20th century, both domestic and foreign.

In the literature of the 20th century. The “point of view” of the narrator and the relationship between the points of view of the subjects of the narrative (i.e., the narrator and the character himself - the hero) become especially significant and significant from the psychological side. The very category of “point of view” underlies the two dominant types of psychologism – objective and subjective (relating respectively to the external and internal psychological point of view).

The external point of view implies that, for the narrator, the character's inner world and behavior are the immediate objects of psychological analysis. This type of psychologism involves a third-person narration, in which the techniques of central consciousness and multiple reflections of the personality of literary characters operate. The technique of central consciousness (widely used by I. S. Turgenev) implies narration and assessment of the material by a literary hero who is not the center of the novel’s action, but who has the intellectual and sensory abilities for a deep and thorough analysis of what this hero has seen and experienced. The technique of multiplicity of reflection, in contrast to the technique of central consciousness, is directly related to the presence of several points of view aimed at one object. This achieves the versatility and objectivity of the created image of the individual. literary character.

Let's turn to the second type psychological point view - to the internal one, which implies that the subject and object of psychological analysis represent a single whole and are therefore fused together. That is, this type of psychological analysis involves first-person narration. Accordingly, such techniques as diary entries of literary characters, their internal monologue, confession, as well as the “stream of consciousness” of the characters can be used here.

In the 19th–20th centuries. the situation in the literature is changing somewhat as the tendency towards distrust of the author’s authoritarianism is strengthening. This process marked the transition of literature to the subjectivization of narration in a literary work and the widespread use by writers of such a technique as psychological subtext.

Psychological subtext is a unique form of dialogue between the author and the reader, when the latter must independently conduct a psychological analysis of a literary character, based on the author’s hints - the narrator is helped in this by rhythm, silence, gradation, as well as repetitions of words and constructions. The use of psychological subtext was characteristic of such domestic masters as A.P. Chekhov and I.S. Turgenev, and among foreign authors it is necessary to mention W. Wolfe and E. Hemingway. The subjectivization of the narrative, in turn, led to the appearance in it of a metaphorical image of the state of the world, “poetically generalized, emotionally rich, expressively expressed.” To create a metaphorical image of the state of the world in the narrative, writers introduce double characters into their literary work and use such a method of psychological analysis as a dream. Reception of duality in psychological aspect was discovered through the literature of romanticism, in which authors could depict two intertwined realities, one of which was directly related to the main “I” of the character, and the other reality belonged to the “double” of the literary hero created by the writer. And dreaming as a technique of psychologism was a kind of bridge between these worlds. IN romantic literature the dream helped the writer create an atmosphere of mystery and mysticism in his work. In modern literature, sleep acquires a special psychological load. Dreams reflect the unconscious and semi-conscious desires and impulses of the character, conveying the intensity of the experiences of his inner world, which contributes to the self-knowledge and introspection of the literary hero. At the same time, dreams, being caused not by events preceding the hero’s life, but by the psychological shocks he experienced, no longer correlate with the plot outline of the work, but with the inner world of a particular character. According to I. V. Strakhov, dreams in a literary work are the writer’s analysis of “the psychological states and characters of the characters.”

All of the above forms and methods of creating psychologism are used by writers both in adult and in children's (teenage) literature.

For many years, the ongoing debate around the question of whether there is specificity in children's literature and whether it is necessary has been resolved in favor of recognizing the specificity. Specifics children's work lies not only in the form, but, above all, in the content, in a special reflection of reality. For children, as V. G. Belinsky pointed out, “the subjects are the same as for adults,” but the approach to the phenomena of reality, due to the peculiarities of a child’s worldview, is selective: what is closer to the child’s inner world is seen by them in close-up, what is interesting to an adult, but less close to the child’s soul, seen as if at a distance. A children's writer depicts the same reality as an “adult,” but brings to the fore what the child sees in close-up. Changing the angle of view on reality leads to a shift in emphasis in the content of the work, and the need for special stylistic techniques arises. Children's writer it is not enough to know the aesthetic ideas of children, their psychology, characteristics children's worldview at different age stages, it is not enough to have “childhood memory”. He is required to have high artistic skill and the natural ability in adulthood, having deeply known the world, to see it every time from a child’s point of view, but at the same time not remain captive of the child’s worldview, but to always be ahead of it in order to lead the reader along.

Thus, psychologism is realized in a work in a direct, indirect or summary-generalizing form with the help of specific techniques: indirect inner speech, psychological analysis and introspection, internal monologue, as well as its most vivid form - the “stream of consciousness”, the “dialectic” technique soul”, artistic detail, technique of omission, psychological subtext, duality or dreams.

General forms and techniques of psychologism are used individually by each writer, including the author of works for children and adolescents. Therefore, there is no one-size-fits-all psychologism. Its different types master and reveal the inner world of a person from different sides, enriching the reader each time with a new psychological and aesthetic experience.

The forest, piercingly brunette, outlined the water, behind it the water rose like an oblique greenish sheet. Pantelei Prokofievich fingered the handles of the scoop with stubby fingers.

- Turn it into the water! Hold it, otherwise it will cut with a saw!

- I suppose!

A large yellow-red carp rose to the surface, foamed the water and, bending its blunt forehead, again plunged into the depths.

- It’s pressing, my hand is already numb... No, wait!

- Hold it, Grishka!

- I’ll hold it!

- Look under the longboat, don’t let him go!.. Look!

Taking a breath, Grigory led the carp, which was lying on its side, to the longboat. The old man tried to reach out with a ladle, but the carp, straining his last strength, again went into the depths.

- Raise his head! Let the wind take a breath, it will calm down. Having led out, Grigory again pulled the exhausted carp to the longboat. Yawning with his mouth wide open, he poked his nose into the rough side and stood, shimmering with the moving orange gold of his fins.

- I fought back! - Panteley Prokofievich grunted, prying it with a ladle.

We sat for another half hour. The battle of the carp died down.

- Get out, Grishka. The last one must have been harnessed, we can’t wait.

We got together. Grigory pushed off from the shore. We've made it halfway. Gregory saw from his father’s face that he wanted to say something, but the old man silently looked at the farmstead’s courtyards scattered under the mountain.

“You, Grigory, that’s what...” he began hesitantly, fiddling with the strings of the bag lying under his feet, “I notice that you are, in no way, with Aksinya Astakhova...”

Gregory blushed deeply and turned away. The collar of the shirt, cutting into the muscular neck, burned by the sun, squeezed out a white stripe.

“Look, guy,” the old man continued harshly and angrily, “I’m going to talk to you in the wrong way.” Stepan is our neighbor, and I won’t allow you to spoil him with his woman. Here things can get really serious, but I warn you in advance: if I notice, I’ll screw it up!

Pantelei Prokofievich clenched his fingers into a knotted fist, squinting his bulging eyes, watching as the blood drained from his son’s face.

“Slanders,” Grigory muttered, as if out of water, and looked straight at his father’s bluish nose.

- Keep quiet.

– There are few things people say...

- Tsk, son of a bitch!

Grigory lay down over the oar. The longboat came in leaps and bounds. The water lurking behind the stern danced in curlicues.

Both were silent until the pier. Already approaching the shore, my father reminded:

- Don’t forget, but no, to close all the games from now on. So that I don’t take a step off the base. So that!

Grigory remained silent. Adjacent to the longboat, he asked:

- Should I give the fish to the women?

“Bring it to the merchants and sell it,” the old man softened, “you’ll get some money for tobacco.”

Grigory walked behind his father, biting his lips. “Take a bite, dad, even if I’m hobbled, I’ll go away to the game,” he thought, angrily gnawing at his father’s steep back of his head with his eyes.

Ways to portray a character

In order to analyze the methods of depicting a character in specific works, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the methods of depicting him.

Let's look at ways to portray a character. L.A. Kozyro, in his textbook for students “The Theory of Literature and the Practice of Reading Activity”, denotes two characteristics that make up the image of a character. These are external and internal characteristics.

In a literary work, psychologism is a set of means used to display the inner world of the hero - for a detailed analysis of his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

This method of depicting a character means that the author sets himself the task of showing the character and personality of the hero directly from the psychological side, and making this way of understanding the hero the main one. Often, methods of depicting the hero’s inner world are divided into “from the inside” and “from the outside.”

The character’s inner world “from the inside” is depicted using internal dialogues, his imagination and memories, monologues and dialogues with himself, sometimes through dreams, letters and personal diaries. The image “from the outside” consists of describing the character’s inner world through the symptoms of his psychological state that manifest themselves externally.

Most often, this is a portrait description of the hero - his facial expressions and gestures, speech patterns and manner of speaking; this also includes a detail and description of the landscape as an external element reflecting the internal state of a person. Many writers use descriptions of everyday life, clothing, behavior and housing for this type of psychologism.

Psychologism is a set of means used to depict the inner world of a character, his psychology, state of mind, thoughts, experiences.

Epic and dramatic works have wide possibilities for mastering the inner life of a person. A carefully individualized reproduction of the experiences of characters in their interrelation and dynamics is designated by the term psychologism.

External characteristics serve as a means of: a) objectifying the image-character and b) expressing the author’s subjective attitude towards him.

Sorokin V.I. The Tory of Literature lists twelve different means of depicting a character.

If the reader has no idea of ​​the character's appearance, it becomes very difficult to perceive the character as a living being. Therefore, the reader’s acquaintance with a character begins, as a rule, with a description of his face, figure, hands, gait, manner of holding himself, dressing, etc., that is, with a portrait description of the character.

Each talented writer has his own style of depicting portraits of heroes. A portrait depends not only on the author’s style, but also on the environment that the writer depicts, that is, it indicates the social affiliation of the character. Thus, in A.P. Chekhov’s story “Children,” the portrait of the “cook’s son” Andrei contrasts with the images of well-fed, well-groomed noble children: “The fifth partner, the cook’s son Andrei, a dark-skinned, sickly boy, in a cotton shirt and with a copper cross on his chest, stands motionless and dreamily looks at the numbers.”

A portrait helps to reveal intellectual capabilities, moral qualities, the psychological state of the character.

Portrait characteristics are used to create not only the image of a person, but also the image of an animal. But we are interested precisely in the ways of depicting the image of a person.

A portrait as a means of creating a character’s image is not present in every work. But even a single portrait detail helps create an image.

A literary portrait is understood as an image in a work of art of a person’s entire appearance, including the face, physique, clothing, demeanor, gestures, and facial expressions.

When creating an image-character, many writers describe his appearance. They do this in different ways: some depict in detail the portrait of the hero in one place, collected; others in different places of the work note individual features of the portrait, as a result of which the reader ultimately gets a clear idea of ​​​​its appearance. Some writers use this technique almost always, others rarely, this is due to the peculiarity of the artist’s individual manner, the genre of the work, and many other conditions of creativity, but always the writer, when describing the appearance of the character, strives to emphasize such details that allow him to more vividly imagine both the external and internal appearance of the hero - to create a living, visually tangible image and to identify the most significant character traits of a given character, and express the author’s attitude towards him.

It is noted that every portrait is characterological to one degree or another - this means that by external features we can at least briefly and approximately judge the character of a person. In this case, the portrait can be provided with an author’s commentary, revealing the connections between the portrait and the character.

The correspondence of portrait features to character traits is a rather conditional and relative thing; it depends on the views and beliefs accepted in a given culture, on the nature of artistic convention. In the early stages of cultural development, it was assumed that beauty appearance spiritual beauty also corresponds; negative characters were portrayed as ugly and disgusting. Subsequently, the connections between the external and the internal in a literary portrait become significantly more complicated. In particular, already in the 19th century, an inverse relationship between portrait and character became possible: a positive hero can be ugly, and a negative one can be beautiful.

Thus, we see that a portrait in literature has always performed not only a depictive, but also an evaluative function.

Kozyro L.A. in his work he names three types of portrait - portrait description, portrait-comparison, portrait-impression.

Portrait description is the simplest and most frequently used form of portrait characterization. It consistently, with varying degrees of completeness, gives a kind of list of portrait details.

Kozyro L.A. gives an example: “Chechevitsyn was the same age and height as Volodya, but not so plump and white, but thin, dark, covered with freckles. His hair was bristly, his eyes were narrow, his lips were thick, in general he was very ugly, and if he had not been wearing a school jacket, then in appearance he could have been mistaken for the cook’s son” (A. P. Chekhov. “Boys” ) .

Sometimes the description is provided with a general conclusion or an author's comment regarding the character of the character revealed in the portrait. Sometimes the description emphasizes one or two leading details.

Portrait comparison is more complex look portrait characteristics. It is important not only to help the reader more clearly imagine the hero’s appearance, but also to create in him a certain impression of the person and his appearance.

An impression portrait is the most complex type of portrait. The peculiarity is that there are no portrait features and details here as such, or very few; all that remains is the impression made by the hero’s appearance on an outside observer or on one of the characters in the work.

Often a portrait is given through the perception of another character, which expands the functions of the portrait in the work, since it also characterizes this other character.

It is necessary to distinguish between static (remaining unchanged throughout the entire work) and dynamic (changing throughout the text) portraits.

A portrait can be detailed and sketchy, representing only one or several of the most expressive details.

We agree with the conclusion of L.A. Kozyro that a portrait in a literary work performs two main functions: pictorial (makes it possible to imagine the person depicted) and characterological (serves as a means of expressing the content of the image and the author’s attitude towards it).

The next characteristic that scientists note is the objective (material) situation that surrounds actor. It also helps characterize the character from the outside.

Character is revealed not only in his appearance, but also in what things he surrounds himself with and how he relates to them. This is what writers use to artistic characteristics character...Through subject characteristics, the author also creates both an individual character and social type, and expresses an idea.

The image of a hero in a work of art is made up of many factors - character, appearance, profession, hobbies, circle of acquaintances, attitude towards oneself and others. One of the main ones is the character’s speech, which fully reveals both the inner world and way of life.

One should be careful not to confuse concepts when analyzing the speech of characters. Often, the speech characteristics of a character are understood as the content of his statements, that is, what the character says, what thoughts and judgments he expresses. In fact speech characteristic- something else.

You need to look not at “what” the characters say, but at “how” they say it. Look at the manner of speech, its stylistic coloring, the nature of the vocabulary, the construction of intonation-syntactic structures, etc.

Speech is the most important indicator of a person’s national and social affiliation, evidence of his temperament, intelligence, talent, degree and nature of education, etc.

A person’s character is also clearly manifested in his speech, in what and how he says. The writer, when creating a typical character, always endows his heroes with an individualized speech characteristic of them.

Kozyro L.A. says that actions and actions are the most important indicators character's character, his worldview, everything spiritual world. We judge people primarily by their deeds.

Sorokin V.I. calls this means “hero behavior.”

A person’s character is especially clearly manifested, of course, in his actions... A person’s character is especially clearly manifested in difficult situations in life, when he finds himself in an unusual, difficult situation, but a person’s everyday behavior is also important for characterization - the writer uses both cases.

The author of a work of fiction draws the reader's attention not only to the essence of the character's actions, words, experiences, thoughts, but also to the manner of performing actions, i.e., to forms of behavior. The term behavior of a character is understood as the embodiment of his inner life in the totality of external features: in gestures, facial expressions, manner of speaking, intonation, in body positions (postures), as well as in clothes and hairstyle (including cosmetics). A form of behavior is not just a set of external details of an action, but a kind of unity, totality, integrity.

Forms of behavior give a person’s inner being (attitudes, attitudes, experiences) clarity, certainty, and completeness.

Sometimes a writer, when creating an image of a character, reveals his character not only indirectly, by depicting his portrait, actions, experiences, etc., but also in a direct form: he speaks on his own behalf about the essential traits of his character.

Self-characterization is when the character himself talks about himself, about his qualities.

Mutual characterization is the evaluation of one character on behalf of other characters.

A characterizing name when the character’s name reflects his qualities and features.

In the work of Sorokin V.I. this means is designated as a “characterizing surname.”

All this related to external characteristics. Let's look at methods of internal characterization.

The method of revealing the image-character is the direct depiction of his inner world. Reconstructing a character's spiritual life is called psychological analysis. For each writer and in each work, psychological analysis takes its own unique forms.

One of these techniques is an internal monologue, which records the flow of thoughts, feelings, and impressions currently possessing the hero’s soul.

The most important technique psychological characteristics For many writers, a character is a description of the person depicted from the point of view of this character.

Chekhov “Grisha”: “Grisha, a small, plump boy, born two years and eight months ago, is walking with his nanny along the boulevard…. Until now, Grisha knew only a quadrangular world, where in one corner there was his bed, in another - his nanny's chest, in the third - a chair, and in the fourth - a burning lamp. If you look under the bed, you will see a doll with a broken arm and a drum, and behind the nanny’s chest there are a lot of different things: spools of thread, pieces of paper, a box without a lid and a broken clown. In this world, in addition to the nanny and Grisha, there is often a mother and a cat. Mom looks like a doll, and the cat looks like dad’s fur coat, only the fur coat doesn’t have eyes or a tail. From the world called the nursery, a door leads into a space where they dine and drink tea. There is Grisha’s chair on high legs and a clock hanging there that exists only to swing a pendulum and ring. From the dining room you can go into a room where there are red chairs. Here there is a dark spot on the carpet, for which Grisha is still shaking their fingers. Behind this room there is another one, where they are not allowed and where dad flashes - a person in highest degree mysterious! The nanny and mother are clear: they dress Grisha, feed him and put him to bed, but why dad exists is unknown.”

Very great importance For the depiction of a living person, it is necessary to show what he thinks and feels at different moments - the writer’s ability to “move into the soul” of his hero.

A character's worldview is one of the means of characterizing a character.

Depicting the views and beliefs of characters is one of the most important means of artistic characterization in literature, especially if the writer depicts the ideological struggle in society.

Exists hidden analysis the spiritual life of the heroes, when it is not their psyche that is revealed directly, but how it is expressed in the actions, gestures, and facial expressions of people.

F. Engels noted that “... a personality is characterized not only by what it does, but also by how it does it.” To characterize the characters, the writer uses the image characteristic features her actions.

Highlight the biography of the hero. It can be framed, for example, as a backstory.

For the purpose of artistic characterization, some authors set out the life story of the characters or tell individual moments from this story.

It is important not only what kind of artistic means the author uses to create an image-character, but also the order of their inclusion in the text. All of these artistic means allow the reader to draw conclusions about the author’s attitude towards the hero.

Creatively working artists find many different techniques to show the appearance and inner world of a person. They use all the different means for this, but each in their own way, depending on the individual style of creativity, on the genre of the work, on the dominant literary direction at the time of its activity and on many other conditions.

The image of a character consists of external and internal characteristics.

The main external characteristics include:

Portrait characteristic

Description of the subject situation

· Speech characteristics

· Self-characteristics

Mutual characteristic

· Characteristic name

The main internal characteristics include:

· Internal monologue description of the person portrayed from the point of view of this character

· Character's worldview

Character's imagination and memories

Character's dreams

· Letters and personal diaries

This list does not exhaust the abundance of means that writers use for artistic characterization.

Conclusion to chapter 1

Thus, after reviewing the scientific literature on the research topic, the following conclusions were made.

1. An artistic image is a part of reality, recreated in a work with the help of the author’s imagination; it is the final result of aesthetic activity.

2. The artistic image has its own specific features these are integrity, expressiveness, self-sufficiency, associativity, concreteness, clarity, metaphor, maximum capacity and ambiguity, typical meaning.

3. In literature, there are images-characters, images-landscapes, images-things. At the level of origin, there are two large groups artistic images: original and traditional.

4. A character is a character in a work of art with his characteristic behavior, appearance, and worldview.

5. In modern literary criticism, the phrases “character” and “literary hero” are often used in the same meaning as “character.” But the concept of “character” is neutral and does not contain an evaluative function.

6. According to the degree of generalization, artistic images are divided into individual, characteristic, and typical.

7. B works of art A special system is formed between the characters. The character system is a strict hierarchical structure. The character system is a certain ratio of characters.

8. There are three types of characters: main, secondary, episodic.

· according to the degree of participation in the plot and, accordingly, the amount of text that this character is given

· according to the degree of importance of a given character for revealing aspects of artistic content.

10. The image of a character consists of external and internal characteristics.

11. The main external characteristics include: portrait characteristic, description of the subject situation, speech characteristic, description of the “hero’s behavior”, author’s characteristic, self-characteristic, mutual characteristic, characterizing name.

12. The main internal characteristics include: internal monologue, a description of what is being portrayed from the point of view of this character, the character’s worldview, the character’s imagination and memories, the character’s dreams, letters and personal diaries.

13. Highlight the biography of the hero. It can be framed, for example, as a backstory.

Literature test Poor Lisa for 9th grade students. The test consists of two options, each option contains 5 short-answer tasks and 3 general tasks with a detailed answer.

Even before the sun rose, Lisa got up, went down to the bank of the Moscow River, sat down on the grass and, saddened, looked at the white mists that were agitated in the air and, rising upward, left shiny drops on the green cover of nature. Silence reigned everywhere. But soon the rising luminary of the day awakened all creation; The groves and bushes came to life, the birds fluttered and sang, the flowers raised their heads to drink in the life-giving rays of light. But Lisa still sat there, saddened. Oh, Lisa, Lisa! What happened to you? Until now, waking up with the birds, you had fun with them in the morning, and a pure, joyful soul shone in your eyes, like the sun shines in drops of heavenly dew; but now you are thoughtful, and the general joy of nature is alien to your heart. Meanwhile, a young shepherd was driving his flock along the river bank, playing the pipe. Lisa fixed her gaze on him and thought: “If the one who now occupies my thoughts was born a simple peasant, a shepherd, and if he were now driving his flock past me; Oh! I would bow to him with a smile and say affably: “Hello, dear shepherd! Where are you driving your flock? And here green grass grows for your sheep, and here flowers grow red, from which you can weave a wreath for your hat.” He would look at me with an affectionate look - maybe he would take my hand... A dream! A shepherd, playing the flute, passed by and disappeared with his motley flock behind a nearby hill.

1 option

Short answer questions

1. To which literary direction belongs to the work?

2. Name the city in which the events take place.

3. Indicate the name of the visual and expressive means:
...the flowers raised their heads to drink life-giving rays of light.

4. What is the name of the means of recreating the hero’s inner world:
Lisa fixed her gaze on him and thought: “If the one who now occupies my thoughts was born a simple peasant...”

5. Indicate the name of the appointment:
Until now, waking up with the birds, you had fun with them in the morning... but now you are thoughtful, and the general joy of nature is alien to your heart.

Long answer questions

Option 2

Short answer questions

1. Name the genre of the work.

2. Name the person who occupied my thoughts Lisa.

3. Indicate the name of the means of allegorical expression:
Silence reigned everywhere...

4. Indicate the name of the visual and expressive medium:
... the soul shone in your eyes, like the sun shining in the dewdrops heavenly.

5. What is the name of the image of nature in a literary work, for example:
“... white mists that waved in the air and, rising upward, left shiny drops on the green cover of nature.”

Long answer questions

6. Like pictures of nature in this fragment reflect the state of the heroine?

7. For what purpose does Karamzin create the image of a shepherdess?

8. Compare fragments of the works of N.M. Karamzin “Poor Liza” and A.S. Pushkin's "The Young Lady-Peasant Woman". How does the state of mind of the heroines differ?

Fragments of works for task 8

The next day, before dawn, Lisa had already woken up. The whole house was still asleep. Nastya was waiting for the shepherd outside the gate. The horn began to play, and the village herd pulled past the manor's yard. Trofim, passing in front of Nastya, gave her small colorful bast shoes and received half a ruble from her as a reward. Liza quietly dressed up as a peasant woman, gave Nastya her instructions in a whisper regarding Miss Jackson, went out onto the back porch and ran through the garden into the field.
The dawn shone in the east, and the golden rows of clouds seemed to be waiting for the sun, like courtiers waiting for a sovereign; the clear sky, morning freshness, dew, breeze and birdsong filled Lisa's heart with infantile gaiety; afraid of some familiar meeting, she seemed not to walk, but to fly. Approaching the grove standing on the border of her father's property, Lisa walked more quietly. Here she was supposed to wait for Alexei. Her heart was beating strongly, without knowing why; but the fear that accompanies our young pranks is also their main charm. Lisa entered the darkness of the grove. A dull, rolling noise greeted the girl. Her gaiety died down. Little by little she indulged in sweet reverie. She thought... but is it possible to accurately determine what a seventeen-year-old young lady is thinking about, alone, in a grove, at six o’clock on a spring morning?

Answers to the literature test Poor Lisa
1 option
1. sentimentalism
2. Moscow
3. epithet
4. internal monologue
5. antithesis // contrast // opposition
Option 2
1. Tale
2. Erast
3. metaphor // personification
4. comparison
5. landscape