Although L.N. Tolstoy is known throughout the world as a master of monumental prose, among creative heritage The writer has many small works. A separate category consists of stories for children, including pupils of the Yasnaya Polyana school.

Works of Tolstoy for children

Among Tolstoy's works for children, several main genres can be distinguished. The first of them is fairy tales. Most of the fairy tales are processed folk stories (such as “The Three Bears”), which were included in Tolstoy’s famous “ABC”.

Another genre loved by Tolstoy is the story. In such works, he describes events that happened in reality, but artistically processes them. The famous “Filipok” and “The Lion and the Dog” belong to this type.

Created by writer a large number of realistic stories, the heroes of which are often children themselves. These include the works “Fire”, “Girl and Mushrooms”, etc.

Finally, the last genre in which Tolstoy created stories for children was scientific educational stories. Let's talk about it in more detail.

Scientific and educational stories by Tolstoy

Among the most famous scientific and educational works of Tolstoy for children are the stories:

• "Hares".
• "What kind of dew happens on the grass."
• "About Ants"
• "How wolves teach their children."
• “Why can you see in the dark?”
• "Apple trees."
• "How trees walk."

Already from the titles of the works it is clear that most of them are devoted to the description natural phenomena. Tolstoy talks in detail about the habits of animals, various plants, etc. At the same time, the presentation style is quite laconic, but succinct. This helps children better perceive the material and learn the most important points regarding a particular topic.

Scientific educational stories by Tolstoy - perfect example how a work of art can be combined with an educational function. Children remember well bright image, and after it the main facts that relate to the scientific characteristics of the subject of the story.

Fairy tales created by L. Tolstoy often have a scientific and educational character. The animation of objects and the magical-fairy-tale form help to assimilate geographical concepts: “Shat Ivanovich did not listen to his father, lost his way and disappeared. And Don Ivanovich listened to his father and went where his father ordered. But he traveled all over Russia and became famous” (“Shat and Don”).

The fairy tale “Volga and Vazuza” attracts the child’s attention with a dispute between two river sisters: “There were two sisters: Volga and Vazuza. They began to argue about which of them was smarter and who would live better.” This fairy tale teaches you to reason and draw the right conclusions.

Tolstoy's tales are designed to make it easier to memorize scientific material. Many works of the “New ABC” and “Russian Books for Reading” are subject to this principle. In the preface to The ABC, Tolstoy writes: “In general, give the student as much information as possible and challenge him to greatest number observations in all branches of knowledge; but tell him as little as possible about general conclusions, definitions, divisions and any terminology.”

L. Tolstoy patiently revised his stories for educational books. His son recalled: “At that time he was compiling the ABC and testing it on us - his children. He told stories and forced us to put those stories into our own words.” Leo Tolstoy for the first time brings together the style of popular science and works of art in educational books for children. In his short educational tales and stories, science is harmoniously combined with poetry and imagery. The writer sought to give children accessible information about the laws of nature, and advised how to practically use these laws in peasant life and farming:

“There is a worm, it is yellow, it eats a leaf. From that worm is silk.”
“A swarm sat down on a bush. My uncle took it off and took it to the hive. And he had a whole year of white honey.”
“Listen to me, my dog: bark at the thief, don’t let him into our house, and don’t scare the children and play with them.”
“The girl caught a dragonfly and wanted to tear its legs. Father said: these same dragonflies sing at dawn. The girl remembered their songs and let them in.”

Geographical information and descriptions of natural phenomena, historical events, physical properties bodies are given for educational and cognitive purposes and at the same time artistically. Tolstoy uses a variety of methods and techniques of presentation; for example, he writes stories on physics in the form of an argument. Thus, in the story “Warmth” the narrative unfolds with the help of questions and answers:

“Why does a glass burst if you pour boiling water into it? Because the place where the boiling water is warms up and stretches, but the place where there is no boiling water remains the same: the glass below pulls apart, but the glass at the top does not let go, and it bursts.”

“Warmth”, “Dampness”, “Why do trees crack in cold weather?” and many other scientific and educational stories, the writer constructs them in the form of a dialogue, which helps children analyze and generalize, reason and come to an independent conclusion. He teaches to peer into natural phenomena, depicts them poetically, using apt comparisons. This is, for example, the story “What Dew Happens on the Grass”: “When you carelessly pick a leaf with dew, the droplet will roll down like a light ball, and you will not see how it slips past the stem.”

III. [POPULAR SCIENTIFIC STORIES AND ARTICLES]

1. HISTORY]

BALAKIREV

There was a Russian Tsar Peter. He had a jester named Balakirev. One day, Tsar Peter became angry with the jester and ordered him to be driven away. Tsar Peter said: Tell him not to dare to stay on my land. Balakirev did not show up for a long time, and Peter thought that he had gone to other lands. One day Tsar Peter sits by the window and sees Balakirev riding down the street in a cart. Peter got angry and ordered Balakirev to be stopped and brought to the window. Peter said: How dare you disobey me. I didn't tell you to stay on my land. And Balakirev said: Don’t be angry, king. I'm not on your land, but on Swedish soil. I brought this land from Sweden. And Balakirev showed that he had earth poured into his cart. The king laughed and forgave him.

<Царь Петр I был росту в три аршина без двух вершков и был так силен, что он ломал руками подковы и сгибал рубли серебряные. Петр I всему сам учился и всякую работу сам умел делать. Он умел топором работать и рубить дома и корабли. Он умел железо ковать и делать винты и подковы. Он шил сапоги и кафтаны. Он умел на меди и на кости вырезывать фигуры, умел точить из кости и дерева и умел говорить и читать по-латыни, по-шведски, по-голландски, по-немецки, по-французски, по-английски.>

<Иван Андреевич Крылов сидел один раз за обедом против молодого человека, который много лгал. Молодой человек стал рассказывать, какая большая у него в пруду есть рыба. Он сказал: Прошлого года я поймал судака такого длинного, как от меня до Ивана Андреевича. Тогда Иван Андреевич отодвинулся и сказал: Может быть, я вам мешаю; может быть, рыба еще больше. Все засмеялись, и молодой человек перестал рассказывать. —>

DEATH OF OLEG

There was a Russian prince Oleg. He called the Magi to him and asked them: What kind of life will he have and what kind of death will he have? The Magi said: Your life will be happy, and your death will be from your beloved horse. Oleg thought: If I die from my beloved horse, then I will send it away and will never ride it.

And Oleg ordered the horse to be taken to a distant village. One day Oleg came to that village. Much time has already passed. Oleg asked: Where is my horse that I sent here, is it alive? They say to him: Your horse has long since died. And Oleg felt sorry for the horse. He says: It was in vain that I destroyed the horse. Show it to me. And they tell him: He died a long time ago, the wolves ate him, only his bones remained. Oleg ordered to be led to the place where they threw the horse. And there were only bones lying around and a horse’s head. Oleg thought: How can death come to me from this now? And he kicked the horse's head. And there was a snake in the head. She crawled out, hissed and stung Oleg in the leg. This is why Oleg died.

HOW THE RUSSIAN BOGATYR FOUGHT

Under Prince Vladimir, the Pechenegs attacked Russia. They approached Kyiv with a large army. Prince Vladimir came out with his army to meet them. They came together on the Trubezh River and stopped. The Pechenezh prince drove up to the river, called Prince Vladimir and said: Why do we need to kill so many people? Let’s do it this way: you release your strongman, and I will release mine, and let them fight. If yours is stronger than mine, then I will leave, and if mine prevails, then you and all your land submit. Prince Vladimir returned to his army and said: Is there such a strongman in our army that he would undertake to fight the Pechenegs? One old man said: I came here with my sons, the fourth, and the fifth, youngest son, Ivan, stayed at home. Tell them to send for him. God gave him great strength. Vladimir said: What is his strength? The old man said: His strength is this: he once crumpled an oxhide. It didn’t seem to me how he did it, so I scolded him. He gets angry and tears the skin in half. Prince Vladimir sent for Ivan. When they brought him, Prince Vladimir said to him: Can you fight the Pechenegs? Ivan said: I don’t know my strength. We must try it. Prince Vladimir ordered to bring a large bull and said: Well, show your strength over him. Ivan ordered to tease the bull, and when the bull ran at him, he grabbed his side with his hand, tore out a piece of skin with meat, and then hit him between the horns with his fist and killed him. Vladimir sent to tell the Pecheneg prince to send his strongman. The next day both armies met. They made a clean place in the middle. Ivan left the Russians. He was short in stature and had a white face. A black giant emerged from the Pechenegs. When the Pecheneg saw Ivan, he said: Why did they bring the little one, I will crush him. When the strongmen came to the middle, to a clear place, they grabbed their sashes, strengthened themselves with their legs and began to squeeze and turn each other. The Pecheneg strongman wanted to lift Ivan and throw him over himself, but Ivan squeezed the Pecheneg so tightly that he could not breathe and wheezed. Then Ivan lifted him up, slammed him to the ground and smashed him to death. The Pechenegs got scared and ran, and the Russians beat them.

HOW A MAN SAVED THE TSAR

When, after Tsar Ivan the Terrible, there were no more legitimate Russian tsars and different tsars were chosen, killed, and driven away, then the Poles wanted to install their prince as Russian tsar, and they wanted to exterminate the real chosen Russian Tsar, Mikhail Fedorovich. — Mikhail Fedorovich was still living in his Kostroma village and did not know that he had been chosen as tsar. And the Poles already found out about this and went to this village to kill him. A little before reaching the village, the Poles met an old man and began to ask him: How can they get to the royal village. The old man noticed that the Poles were not going to the Tsar’s village for good, and decided to take them away from the Tsar. He told them: we need to go through Domnino, I myself am from Domnino, I’m going home, perhaps I’ll take you with you. The Poles followed the man, and he led them to his hut in Domnino. Then he fed them and gave them wine to drink. And he himself sent his son to the king to say that the Poles were coming to harass him. As it approached evening, the Poles began to prepare to go to the royal village and asked the old man to accompany him, because it was winter and it was snowing. The old man said: Why not carry it out. He put his caftan on his fur coat and led the Poles away from the royal village, led them into the forest, into a hummock and wanted to leave, but the Poles caught him and began to torture him. The old man was silent. Then the Poles realized that he had deceived them, and began to persuade him to get them out, and if he didn’t get them out, they threatened to cut off his head. Then the old man said to them: I know that I am lost, but I am not afraid of it, and you will not have to kill<царя>, because you yourself will not get out of here. Then the Poles killed the old man. And they went wandering through the forest, and everyone froze in one night. This old man's name was Ivan Susanin.

7 GREEK SAGES

The Greeks considered 7 wise men: Thales, Solon, Pittacus, Bion, Cleobulus, Periander and Chilon. These sages had a lot of intelligence and learning, and they taught the people many sciences and wisdom; but they were considered wise men not because they knew a lot, but for this:

Near the city of Miletus, fishermen were fishing. A rich man came up and bought a tonya from the fishermen. “They sold it, took the money, and promised to give away everything that came into this sink.” They cast a net and instead of a fish they pulled out a golden tripod. The rich man wanted to take the tripod, but the fishermen did not give it to him. They said they sold fish, not gold. They began to argue and sent to ask the oracle who should give the tripod to. Pythia said: the tripod must be given to the wisest of the Greeks. Then all the inhabitants of Miletus said that it should be given to Thales. They sent the tripod to Thales. But Thales said: I am not wiser than everyone else. There are many people wiser than me. And he did not take the tripod. Then they sent to Solon, and he said the same thing, and they sent to a third, and the third refused. And there were 7 such people. All of them did not consider themselves wise. That's why they were called the 7 Greek sages.

<КАК МЫ УЕЗЖАЛИ ИЗ МОСКВЫ

One day Cossacks rode past our house. My father came out to them and asked them where they were going. They said that the French were coming after them and that all the people were leaving the city. Then my father ordered two carts to be locked, and we all drove off. Carriages, carriages, carts were driving along the road, and many people were walking. Mother kept crying, and the father told her: don’t cry, it will grind - everything will be flour. My brother and I still didn’t understand anything, and we were having fun. In the evening we stopped to spend the night at an inn. And when it got dark, all the people went out into the street to watch how the French set Moscow on fire. Father then said: The cat will be repaid with the mouse’s tears. And so it happened. When we arrived in Moscow again, there was not a single Frenchman left. They were all killed. And Moscow was built better than before.>

2. [GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY]

<ВЕНЕЦИЯ

In Italy there is such a city on the seashore. It is called Venice. There is water on all the streets in this city. And in this city they ride not on horses, but on boats. The porches in this city are built right above the water. As soon as you leave the house, it’s water. If someone wants to go somewhere, they call a cab driver. And the driver arrives by boat. The houses in this city are large - 4 and 5 floors. These houses were built by merchants. They traded at sea and became rich as a result.>

<КАЗБЕК

There is a land in Russia called the Caucasus. There are such high mountains in this land that the clouds go below these mountains. When you enter half of this mountain and look down at the road, the people on the road seem so small, like dolls. “There is always snow on these mountains, and this snow never melts.” Of these mountains, Mount Kazbek is the highest. No one has ever been to the very top of this mountain. Because it is very difficult to enter there. It's slippery and cold there and it's hard to breathe. There is a monastery on half of this mountain. Now no one lives in this monastery, but before there were monks.>

When I was in the Caucasus, I went to high mountain. This mountain is called Kazbek. When I reached half of the mountain, it became foggy and I couldn’t see anything. Then, when I climbed even higher, the sky became clear - and below there were clouds. This mountain is so high that when I was in the fog, I was in the cloud itself, and then, when the fog was below me, I was above the clouds, and it was clear on the mountain, but below it was raining.

<НЕГРЫ

There are lands in Africa where winter never occurs. In these lands there is never snow, the water never freezes and it never rains. “It’s so dry and hot in these lands that nothing grows: no grass, no trees.” And everywhere there is only sand. You can only live there near rivers. Near the rivers there is grass and trees. And these trees whole year there are green ones. Black people live in these lands. They are called blacks. These people always go naked and live without houses in huts. They make huts from branches and leaves. They eat fruits from trees and raw meat of animals.>

BURAN

The bluegrass is stronger where there are no mountains or forests. There are places in Russia where for 500 miles around there is not a single forest or a single hill; and everywhere there is flat and bare steppe. In these places, snowstorms - they call them snowstorms - are so strong that they carry not only people, but entire herds of cattle. Kalmyks, Nogais, Kyrgyz and Bashkirs live in these places. These peoples speak their own special language and believe in their own special faith, but they live in Russia and submit to the Russian Tsar. These peoples do not live, like the Russians, in one place, and do not build houses for themselves, and do not plow the land, but move from place to place and live in booths and feed not on bread, but on milk and meat.

They have a lot of all kinds of livestock: rams, cattle, and horses,<и всё, что им нужно: и платье, и дома, и пищу они делают из шкур, из шерсти, из молока и мяса.>A rich Kyrgyz may have 1,7 thousand horses, 2,000 cows, and 20,000 rams. When the snow melts and it becomes warm, the most joyful life begins for these peoples. They harness the carts, put all their belongings and folding houses made of lattice and felt on the carts, put their wives, old women and children on them, drive their herds and go to the best meadows to some river. So they set up their booths side by side and begin to live. Men herd cattle and beat sheep and horses for food, women milk cows and mares and make cheese and kumiss, cook food and sew dresses and walk all summer.

3. [ZOOLOGY]

<Поводильщик выучил медведя отказываться головой от вина, которое ему подносили. И когда медведь, охочий до вина, мотал головой, народ спрашивал, что он этим говорит. Поводильщик говорил: Мне не надо того, что тебе назначено. Когда однажды на поводильщика, ночевавшего близко от леса, напал медведь и стал драть, поводильщик закричал мужику: Спусти моего медведя; авось, этот меня пустит и на ручного бросится. Когда же ученый медведь не подходил к нему, задираемый поводильщик опять закричал: Что ты не спускаешь Мишку, что он там делает? Мужик отвечал: Он говорит: Что ему не надо, и что он отдает тебе всё, что ему назначено. —>

The owner of the tavern brought vodka to the driver, the goat and the bear. The goat gave his glass to the owner. The bear turned away from the vodka and pointed its paw at its owner. The owner was surprised that the bear<всегда охочий до водки,>refused her, and asked the guide what the bear wanted to say. “And he says: I don’t need the master’s things.” “That same evening the driver got into a fight with the men. “Let the bear off the chain,” the leader shouted to his comrade when he was knocked down and overpowered. But the comrade - the goat - answered from the yard: The bear is not coming, but says that I don’t need the master’s things.

HOW THE BEAR WAS CAUGHT

There are many bears in the Nizhny Novgorod province. The men catch little bear cubs, feed them and teach them to dance. Then they take the bears to show. One leads him, and the other dresses up as a goat, dances and beats the drum. One man brought a bear to the fair. His nephew walked with him with a goat and a drum. There were a lot of people at the fair, and everyone looked at the bear and gave the man money. In the evening, the man brought his bear to the tavern. And made him dance. The man was given more money and wine. He drank some wine and gave it to his friend to drink. And he gave the bear a whole glass of wine to drink. When night came, the man, his nephew and the bear went to spend the night in the field, because everyone was afraid to let a bear into their yard. The man with his nephew and the bear went out of the village and went to sleep under a tree. The man tied the bear's chain to his belt and lay down. He was a little drunk and soon fell asleep. His nephew also fell asleep. And they slept so soundly that they never woke up until the morning. In the morning the man woke up and saw that the bear was not near him. He woke up his nephew and ran with him to look for the bear. The grass was high. And the bear's footprint was visible on the grass. He walked through the field into the forest. The men ran after him. The forest was dense, so it was difficult to walk through it. The nephew said: Uncle, we won't find the bear. And even if we find him, we won’t catch him. Let's go back. But the man did not agree. He said: The bear fed us, and if we don’t find him, we will go through the world. I will not go back, but with all my might I will look for him. They went further and in the evening they came to a clearing. It began to get dark. The men were tired and sat down to rest. Suddenly they heard something rattling with a chain close to them. The man jumped up and quietly said: This is him. We need to sneak up and catch him. He went to the side where the chain rattled and saw a bear. The bear pulled the chain with its paws and wanted to throw off the binding. When he saw the man, he roared terribly and bared his teeth. The nephew was frightened and wanted to run away; but the man grabbed his hand,<с ним вместе пошли к медведю. —

The bear growled even louder and ran into the forest. The man saw that he would not catch him. Then he ordered his nephew to put on a goat, and dance, and beat the drum, and he himself began to shout at the bear in the same voice as he shouted when he showed him. The bear suddenly stopped in the bushes, listened to the owner’s voice, rose on its hind legs and began to spin around. The man came even closer to him and kept shouting. And the nephew kept dancing and beating the drum. When the man was already close to the bear, he suddenly rushed towards him and grabbed him by the chain. Then the bear growled and started to run, but the man did not let him go and again began to lead him and show him.>

JAKOV'S DOG

One guard had a wife and two children:<мальчик и девочка. Мальчику было семь лет, а девочке было пять лет. У них была лохматая собака с белой мордой и большими глазами.>

One day the guard went into the forest and told his wife not to let the children leave the house, because wolves had been walking around the house all night and attacking the dog. The wife said: children, don’t go into the forest, and she sat down to work.

When the mother sat down to work, the boy said to his sister: let's go into the forest, yesterday I saw an apple tree, and apples were ripe on it.

The girl said: let's go, and they ran into the forest. When the mother finished working, she called the children, but they were not there. She went out onto the porch and began calling to them. There were no children. The husband came home and asked: where are the children? The wife said she didn't know.

Then the guard<рассердился на жену и>ran to look for the children.

Suddenly he heard a dog squealing. He ran there and saw that the children were sitting under a bush and crying, and the wolf had grappled with the dog and was gnawing at it. The guard grabbed an ax and killed the wolf. Then he took the children in his arms and ran home with them.

When they arrived home, the mother locked the door and they sat down to dinner. Suddenly they heard a dog squealing at the door. They went out into the yard and wanted to let the dog into the house, but the dog was covered in blood and could not walk. The children brought her water and bread. But she did not want to drink or eat and only licked their hands. Then she lay down on her side and stopped squealing. The children thought the dog had fallen asleep; and she died. —

Swans flew in a herd from the cold side to the warm lands. They flew across the sea. They flew day and night; and another day and another night, without resting, they flew over the water. There was a full month in the sky, and the swans saw blue water far below them. All the swans were exhausted, flapping their wings, but they did not stop and flew on. Old, strong swans flew in front, and those who were younger and weaker flew behind. One young swan flew behind everyone. His strength weakened. He flapped his wings and could not fly any further. Then he, spreading his wings, went down. He descended closer and closer to the water; and his comrades further and further became whiter in the monthly light. The swan descended onto the water and folded its wings. The sea rose beneath him and rocked him. A flock of swans was barely visible as a white line in the light sky. And in the silence you could barely hear the sound of their wings ringing. When they were completely out of sight, the swan bent its neck back and closed its eyes. He did not move, and only the sea, rising and falling in a wide strip, raised and lowered him. Before dawn, a light breeze began to sway the sea. And the water splashed into the white chest of the swan. The swan opened his eyes. The dawn reddened in the east, and the moon and stars became paler. The swan sighed, stretched out its neck and, flapping its wings, rose up and flew, catching its “wings” on the water. He rose higher and higher and flew alone over the dark, swirling waves.

<Летним днем рой пчел с маткой в середине вылетел из улья. На полете молодая матка зацепилась за высокий цветок и не в силах подняться — на нем повисла. Увидав ее, ласточка спустилась к ней. Ты не должна прикасаться ко мне, сказала пчелиная матка: погляди на короткость моих крыльев и длину моего тела: я царица пчелам, и пчелы готовы все умереть за меня. Царица быстрых на полете пчел должна летать быстрее их, а ты не можешь поднять с цветка свое тяжелое тело, сказала ласточка: ты обманщица; пчелы ничего не дадут за тебя, и проглотила матку.>

<В жаркий летний день рой пчел вылетел с молодой маткой из улья. Пчелы вились и играли над пчельником и лесом. Пчелы жужжали, трутни трубели. Матка была в середине, и все пчелы окружали ее и летали туда, куда летела матка. К вечеру пчелы возвратились домой, но матка ослабела и от непривычки летать и оттого, что у нее крылья короче, а тело длиннее, чем у других пчел, не попала в улей, а упала в траву. Пчелы не заметили этого и влетели в улей. Но когда они увидали, что нет матки, они стали бегать по стенкам и вощинам, отыскивая свою царицу, но не могли уж вылететь из улья, потому что было поздно. Матка между тем одна ползала по земле, взбиралась на травы, подгибавшиеся под ее тяжестью и, взмахнув крыльями, опять спускалась на землю, опять влезала, и путалась, и блуждала между травой. Становилось всё темнее и темнее. Лягушки прыгали по траве, и матка, спасаясь от них, взобралась на цветок кашки, но с кашки упала и запуталась в высоком пырье. Вдруг большая птица увидала матку, подлетела к ней, взяла осторожно клювом, выпутала из травы и с нею взлетела на плетень. Матка видела с плетня свой улей и видела, как ее пчелы бегали наружу по улью и слышала, как они жалобно трубели, отыскивая ее, и она сказала птице: Я благодарю тебя за то, что ты вынула меня из травы, но ты летишь не туда, куда надо — дом мой в этом улье. Птица сказала: Ты напрасно благодаришь меня, я вынула тебя из травы не затем, чтобы снести в улей, а затем, чтобы отдать своим детям на съеденье. Разве ты не видишь, сказала матка, что я не простая пчела, а что я царица, разве ты не видишь, что я больше всех пчел. Отнеси меня в улей, а то пчелы пропадут без меня. Я давно знаю, что ты матка, сказала птица, и мне всё равно, что будет с твоими пчелами, а мне давно хотелось угостить моих детей толстой маткой. И птица разорвала матку на двое и отдала своим детям.>

<НЬЮФАУНДЛЕНДСКИЕ СОБАКИ

Newfoundland dogs can be very large. Their fur is black and long, and their feet have webs between their toes, like ducks. These dogs are very strong and swim so well that they can pull a large man out of the water. One gentleman hunter bought himself such a dog. One day he went hunting. He had to cross a small stream. The bridge was far away. He went straight across the water. He thought that the water would not be deeper than knee-deep. The Newfoundland dog did not follow him. And she sat down on the shore, raised her ears and began to look at him. The master had just reached half of the river on the water, when suddenly the dog jumped up and rushed into the water. She ran up to the master, grabbed him by the dress and dragged him back. The master wanted to drive her away, but the dog growled and pretended that she would bite him if he did not go with her. The master went back to the shore. On the shore, the dog began to caress again. The master went into the river again. But again, as soon as he reached half the water, the dog rushed and dragged him back. The master got angry and tied the dog to a tree. When he went back into the water, the dog began to chew the rope to which it was tied. But the master thought: I will cross the water before it bites off the rope. When he began to approach the other>

OSTRICH

In America there are such big birds that people ride them. These birds run so fast that it is difficult to catch up with them on a horse. These birds are called ostrich. They are caught on horseback. They jump after them until they get tired. When they get tired of running, these birds run up to a bush and hide their head in it. When they hide their head, they see nothing. And they think that they too are invisible.

ABOUT ANTS

One day I came to the pantry to get some jam. I took the jar and saw that the whole jar was full of ants. Ants crawled in the middle and on top of the jar, and in the jam itself. I took out all the ants with a spoon, swept them all around from the jar and put the jar on the top shelf. The next day, when I came to the pantry, I saw that ants had crawled from the floor to the top shelf and crawled into the jam again. I took the jar, cleaned it again, tied it with a rope and hung it on a nail to the ceiling. When I left the pantry, I looked at the jar again and saw that there was only one ant left on it; it was soon running around the jar. I stopped to see what he would do. The ant ran along the glass, then ran along the rope with which the can was tied, then ran onto the rope with which the can was tied. He ran up to the ceiling, ran from the ceiling down the wall and onto the floor, where there were a lot of ants. It’s true that this ant told the others which way he came from the jar, because immediately many ants followed each other along the wall to the ceiling and along the rope into the jar, along the same road along which the ant came. I removed the jar and put it in another place.

<Один раз сто овец шли домой с поля. Впереди всех шла черная молодая овца, а сзади шла старая белая овца. Вдруг сзади овец заржала лошадь. Старая задняя овца побежала и закричала: Бегите скорее, что-то страшное закричало. И задние овцы побежали. Черная овца слышала, что это заржала лошадь, и не испугалась. Но другие овцы бежали за ней и кричали: волк, медведь, лев, бегите скорее... Черная овца подумала, что, может быть, она не расслышала и что сзади был волк. И она побежала. Когда она побежала, ей показалось, что она, точно, слышит вой волка. Она побежала еще скорее, и тогда ей показалось, что она слышит, как волк скачет сзади. Она побежала еще скорее, и тогда ей показалось, что стадо волков бежит за ней. Она поскакала что было силы. Овцы скакали по выгону. На выгоне лежали полотна. Черная овца увидала эти полотна. Она не знала, что это такое, но ей стало страшно, и она прыгнула через полотно. Она сказала: Прыгайте, овцы. И все овцы стали прыгать через полотно. И овцы прыгали и кричали: Овраг, пропасть, пожар, прыгайте, выше прыгайте. Мы пропали. И овцы все прыгали и попадали одна на другую, и две переломили ноги. Когда овец пригнали домой, они долго кричали разными голосами и не могли перевести духа. А овцы с переломанными ногами плакали. Когда овцы отдохнули, они стали говорить между собой. Черная овца сказала: Мне кажется, что сзади заржала лошадь, когда вы все побежали, а волка не было. Тогда другая овца сказала: Нет, это не была лошадь, а все сказали, что это был волк. А 3-я сказала: Нет это был медведь. А 4 сказала: Нет, это был лев. А самая задняя сказала: Я сама видела, что это были два льва, 4 медведя и 10 волков. Она сказала, что она сама это видела, но она ничего не видала. Ей только стыдно было признаться, что она ничего не видала и напрасно всех перепугала. Когда все поверили ей и благодарили за то, что она спасла их от такой беды, тогда эта старая овца сказала: львов, медведей и волков я сама видела и мне кажется, что пропасти и пожара совсем не было там, где мы все прыгали и ломали ноги. Э[то] п[олотно] лежало. Я видела, как заворотился конец полотна. Тогда другая овца сказала: что она видела овраг. 2-я сказала, что она видела пропасть. 3-я сказала, что она видела пожар, а черная овца сказала, что она сама видела, что на дороге была пропасть и в пропасти горел страшный огонь, что если бы она 1-я не сказала им этого, они все бы погибли. А она тоже знала, что это было полотно, но ей стыдно было признаться, и все поверили ей, что был пожар.>

<НА ЧТО НУЖНЫ МЫШИ

I had a young garden. In the spring, I went to look at my apple trees and saw that mice had eaten their roots all around, so that around each apple tree the bark was eaten like a white ring. The apple trees were good and fresh. They all had flower buds. They would all bloom and bear fruit, but now I knew that they would perish, because the sap in the trees runs through the bark, just as the blood runs through the veins in a person. I was deeply sorry to look at my apple trees, and I went home and told my grandfather my grief, and how I would have beaten all the mice in the world if I had had the strength. And my grandfather told me: If you had the strength to kill mice, you know who would come to ask you for them. I said: There is no one to ask for them, no one needs them. And the grandfather said: The cats would come first and ask for the mice. They would say: If you burn the mice, we will have nothing to eat. Then the foxes would come and ask too. They would say: without mice we will have to steal hens and chicks. After the foxes, black grouse and partridges would come and they would also ask you not to kill the mice. I was surprised: why do partridges and black grouse need mice, but my grandfather said: They need mice more than anything in the world. They don’t eat them, but if you kill the mice, the foxes will have nothing to eat; they will destroy the partridge and grouse nests. We all need each other in the world. —>

4. [BOTANY]

THE TREES BREATHE

The child was sick. He thrashed and thrashed, then fell silent. His mother thought he had fallen asleep; I looked and he wasn’t breathing. She began to cry, called her grandmother and said: “Look, my baby has died.” The grandmother says: “Wait a minute, cry, maybe he just froze and didn’t die. Here, let’s put a piece of glass on his mouth, if he sweats, it means he’s breathing and alive.”

They put a piece of glass to his mouth. The glass became sweaty. The child was alive. He woke up and recovered.

During Lent there was a thaw, but it didn’t drive away all the snow, and it froze again, and there was fog.

Early in the morning I walked across the crust into the garden. I look - all the apple trees are variegated, some branches are black, while others are exactly sprinkled with white stars. I came closer and looked at the black twigs - they were all dry, I looked at the motley ones - they were all alive and their buds were all covered in frost. There is no frost anywhere, only at the very tips of the kidneys, on the mouths where they began to open, just like the mustaches and beards of men become frosty in the cold. Dead trees do not breathe, but living trees breathe, just like people. We use our mouths and noses, they use our kidneys.

<МОМУТОВОЕ ДЕРЕВО

The largest tree in the world is the Momut tree in America. “It has been growing for 2000 years and is taller than the tallest bell tower.” Our largest trees: birch, oak, pine and spruce, are 30 arshins high, and this tree is five times even taller. And this tree is so thick that 30 people, holding hands, would not be able to grasp it.>

Tea is made from leaves. The leaves are collected from the tree and dried in pans. When the leaves are dry, they are placed in boxes and taken to be sold. The tea tree grows only in the warmest lands. It grows in China and Japan. The tea tree is not tall, so that a person can reach its top with his hand. It is propagated by seeds. Tea tree seeds look like a box with three compartments. And in each compartment there is a nut in the shell. This nut is the seed. If you plant it, a tree will grow. —

CORK

Corks are made from tree bark. In Italy, Spain, France and other places, trees similar to oak grow. These trees are not as tall as the oak. These trees are always green. And when they grow large, a thick bark is made on them. This bark is removed and a cork is made from it. When the bark is removed from the tree, bark grows in that place again. And they take it off again. When there is a lot of traffic jam,<ее>they put it in water, and then unbend it and make planks out of it. Then they make plugs out of it. Water cannot pass through the plug. And cork is so light on water that if you make a belt out of cork and put it on a person, that person cannot drown.

5. [PHYSIOLOGY]

WHY IS IT SEEN IN THE DARK?

Enter the dark barn from the yard. I can not see anything. Stay a little, you will begin to distinguish the pillars and the roof. And you look around, and everything is visible. Why does this happen?

There is a pupil in the eye. If you look closely into the pupil, you will see yourself, as if in a small mirror. The pupil is not solid, but it is a ring, and in the ring there is an empty space, and behind the empty space there is a mirror. This ring shrinks and expands. When it is very light from the sun or fire, we can see clearly, and we squeeze the ring and cover the mirror. But when there is not enough light, we stretch the ring to get more light into the mirror.

When you enter a dark place from the sun, the ring is compressed, and we begin to stretch it. When we stretch it more, we will see more.

And when you come out of a dark place into the light, why do your eyes hurt? Because in a dark place we stretched the eye ring, but suddenly we cannot tighten it. While it tightens, we close our eyes with our eyelids, otherwise too much light gets into the stretched ring, and it hurts our eyes.

When everything is quiet and you listen, knock something or shout, it will hurt your ears. Why is this? Each ear has a membrane, and this membrane is stretched over the cartilage, like a drum. When you want to hear the sound better, you stretch the cartilages, and the membrane will become tighter. And when they make too much noise, you compress the cartilages, and the membrane weakens. “When it’s quiet all around and you listen, you’ll stretch your membrane.” Hit something hard and it will hurt your ears.

SMELL

Why do things smell? Because they crumble into the smallest crumbs - such small crumbs that they cannot be seen with the eyes, and these crumbs scatter through the air; and as we breathe, we draw them into our nose, and these crumbs land on our nasal membrane.

<Чем крепче вещь, тем она меньше пахнет. Всякий металл, камень и дерево, покуда они холодны и сухи и не растерты в порошок — ничем не пахнут. А почти всё согретое или мокрое или очень мелко растертое — пахнет. Жидкое всё почти пахнет. А еще сильнее пахнут почти все газы.>

The odorous thing decreases. The stronger it smells, the more what smells in it decreases. If you spread the grass, it will give strong spirit, then it will smell less and less and stop completely. And if you hang the odorous hay and also when it stops smelling, you will see that the odorous hay was heavier than the non-odorous hay. Everything that was missing in weight came out as a smell - in such small particles that you cannot see them with your eyes, but can only hear them with your nose. The same thing happens with manure. When it stops smelling, it will have less weight. The same thing happens with vodka if you keep it uncorked. It's the same with all kinds of perfumes.

All living things - plants and animals - smell strongly. But plants and animals do not decrease in weight because they smell, because as much as the smell comes out of a living thing - a plant or an animal - is the amount it will take back into itself with food. An animal eats, drinks, breathes; and the plant has leaves from the air and roots from the earth.

How small are the particles that give off the smell?

A man is 400,000 times larger than a flea, and he sees the flea and feels it with his hands. The flea also has eyes 100,000 times smaller than human eyes. A flea with its own eyes must see substances 400,000 times smaller than itself. These are the particles, and maybe even smaller ones, that get into our noses when we smell something.

6. [ASTRONOMY]

ASTRONOMY

The calendar says ahead when the days and nights will be equal; it also says ahead when, on what day and at what hour the month will be born. It is also said in calendars when, on what day and at what hour the moon or sun will be eclipsed.<Затмения солнца и луны бывают каждый год не меньше трех, только не всегда затмения эти видны от нас. Иногда видно в Петербурге, а на Кавказе не видно>. Calendars also tell you in advance when, at what hour, a star with a tail will appear in the sky.<И звезды эти с хвостами каждый год бывают на небе, только мы не всегда их примечаем.>“And everything always comes true as predicted in the calendar.”

An eclipse of the moon and an eclipse of the sun were predicted in 1871, and exactly as predicted, on that very day and hour in the middle of the night on full moon a black spot found, closed and then opened the month, and in the middle of the day a black spot found on the sun, closed the sun and opened again.<Узнают всё это вперед астрономы. У них есть построены башни, на башнях длинные зрительные трубы, и в эти трубы звезды днем видно. И они смотрят звезды, месяц, солнце, меряют расстояние между звездами, на бумагу срисовывают звезды и высчитывают, сколько времени какая звезда идет от места до места, и узнают, где, в какое время солнцу, месяцу и звезде надо быть. За тысячи лет до нас астрономы рассматривали звезды, солнце и месяц и замечали, как и куда они ходят, и записывали, и рисовали на бумаге и рассчитывали, когда какая звезда должна прийти. И теперь тоже делают и кое-что знают и вперед угадывают. — Но прежде те, кто знали об звездах, никому не показывали своих расчетов и удивляли народ тем, что вперед угадывали, что будет, а теперь всякий, у кого есть охота к этому делу, может сам дойти до того, что предсказывают в календарях.>

If anyone will<летом>in the night, get up every day before dawn and notice where the sun rises, then he will notice that the sun does not rise in the same place where it rose yesterday, but in another place, a little to the left, and does not rise at the same time as yesterday, but early every day. If he looks every day from one place and notes something, a tree or a hillock, against which the sun rises, and so marks a year or two, then he will guess in advance where on what day the sun will rise. If he also notices in the evenings where the month gets up and at what time the month gets up, then he will guess in advance where the month will get up. If he uses the stars to note against which star the month will be at what hour, then he will also predict. And for a person who has never noticed this, it will be as surprising as how they guess in calendars when there will be which star and when the eclipse will be. Here one person noticed for a year or two, and there thousands of people noticed for thousands of years. —<Тот, кто имеет охоту к этому делу, тот может узнать, как дошли люди до этого. Только это дело трудное и много надо учиться, прочесть книг и самому примечать и уметь считать.

Some say that the earth stands on three fish, while others say that it is round, like a ball, and does not stand on anything. It’s all the same, no one has seen either three fish, or the whole earth, or that it spins. And what is precious is how people have reached the point where they know in advance what is happening with the sun, the moon and the stars.>

STARS

<Прежде чем примечать за солнцем и месяцем, надо узнать звезды, как они всходят и заходят, и как они расставлены. Звезд всех очень много, если смотреть на них в увеличительные трубы; но если смотреть на звезды простым глазом, то их совсем не так много, как кажется. Всех звезд с одного места видно не более 2000; а из этих 2000 больших звезд не больше 40, средних около 100, а остальные маленькие. Большие звезды приметны, и все их знают. Высожары. Медведица. Крест. Все звезды, и большие и маленькие, всходят с востока и заходят на западе. Иные в ночь и поднимутся и зайдут ночью, а иные стоят уже наверху на небе, когда смеркнется и станут видны звезды, но все-таки и эти идут с востока на запад, а иные только перед зарей начинают подниматься и идут на запад, но как солнце взойдет, они потухнут, и простым глазом не видать, как они заходят; но в зрительные трубы видны звезды и днем, и видно, как они все выходят с востока и заходят на запад. Если стать лицом на полдень, то одни звезды будут проходить над самой головой с востока на запад, другие впереди пониже и поменьше круги будут делать, другие еще пониже, другие еще пониже, и в самом конце к полдню будут звезды такие, которые только выйдут из-за земли с востока, сделают маленькую дугу и опять зайдут. Если повернуться назад и смотреть на север, то точно так же будут с востока на запад идти звезды, одни над головой, другие пониже, другие еще пониже и еще пониже, но не будет таких звезд, как на полдне, таких, которые только бы вышли из-за земли, сейчас бы и зашли. Здесь на севере будут, напротив, звезды такие, которые будут кружиться с востока на запад, но вовсе не будут заходить за землю, а будут кружиться над землею. На полудни звезды ходят ниже, а на севере выше. —

All the stars always walk as if locked together. If you measure how far from one star to another and from another to a third and to a fourth, then no matter where these stars are above your head or above the earth, the distance between them will always be the same. This is visible to the eye in the Cross and in the Big Dipper.

And astronomers measure these distances, and it always turns out that wherever the stars were, above or below, the distance between them was always the same. So the sky with the stars revolves above our heads, like a canopy, all with the same patterns. And all the stars pass above us - both those above our heads, their large circles, and those that walk low above the earth, their small circles - all at the same time. The entire sky revolves above us at exactly 24 hours. If the star Sirius was directly overhead 24 hours ago, and the Red Star had just appeared above the earth, then exactly 24 hours later Sirius will again be overhead, the Red Star will be above the earth, and again the same stars that were in the previous 24 hours. When you look at the stars for a long time and often, you will memorize them so that when one familiar star appears, you will now know which one will be to the right, to the left, which one will be in front, behind, and after these which other stars will follow. It’s just like on a familiar carpet, you know what the patterns will be when you unroll one end of the carpet. So astronomers know the entire vault of heaven with all the stars. The entire sky and stars are copied onto paper. And to make it clearer, paper is made into balls the same as the whole sky, and these balls are divided by stripes, just as a melon is divided by stripes. These stripes are wide in the middle, and converge towards the ends. There are 360 ​​of these stripes and each strip has its own stars. Using these pictures it is easy to find each star.

SUN

When they recognize the whole sky with the stars as a carpet, then they begin to notice the sun. The sun rises in the same way as the stars, in the east and sets in the west, but it does not move like the stars. All stars rise and set in the same place and at the same time. But the sun does not rise at the same time, but every day it comes out and sets at a different time from yesterday. From December 11th it comes out earlier and earlier, and from June 11th it comes out later and later. And every day the sun rises and sets in the wrong place and the sky moves in the wrong circle. The stars all walk with the whole sky, in one piece, but the sun walks separately across the sky and lags behind the stars. So if today a star was barely visible before sunrise and went out, tomorrow this star will come out before the sun, and the day after tomorrow even earlier, and then even earlier, and even earlier. And so everything will lag behind and in a year, in 365 [days], the sun will lag behind by a whole circle and in a year will converge again with the same star. The star will turn around 366 times, and the sun 365, one time less.<Солнце ходит, как и звезды, с востока на запад, но не по тем кругам, как звезды, а наискоски, так что солнечные круги не сходятся с звездными. Так что если нарисовать на шаре все места звезд и их круги, то солнечная дорога будет перерезать все звездные круги в одну сторону от 11 марта и до 11 сентября, а потом опять перерезать эти круги в другую сторону.>In order to find out how and on what path the sun walks, you need to note which stars it walks with, and from which stars it moves to which. If the stars were visible during the day, this would be easy; and since it is not visible, you need to get to know the whole sky with the stars so that during the day you can point to some place in the sky and know what stars are there now. —

This can be achieved in this way: first of all, you need to find the north, south, east and west, place a stake straight along a plumb line and make a cross on the stake so that it points in all 4 directions. If you fix one semicircle so that it turns from north to south, and measure the angles of the stars on the clay from the middle on the semicircle, then when these stars are above your head, all the angles can be measured. Today one pair, tomorrow another. Confirm the other circle so that it rotates from west to east.

axis mundi, globe of stars. Tools, compass. Journey]. Geography[a] for rotation. A journey to move around the sun.

1) Visibility of the stars of our hemisphere.

2) Meridian, p. Yu. V. h. (compass, circle).

3) Globe of hemispheric stars.

4) The sun's path along the stars of our hemisphere. Lagging behind and retreating.

5) Equinox.

6) Eclipse<величина солнца.>

8) Lost stars.

1) Travel, other stars, inclined[s.]

2) Travel. Equator, axis poles.

3) Globe of all stars, measurement by angles.

4) The sun is at the poles, at the equator.

5) Antipodes and winter and summer

6) Eclipse, measurement of the sun.

7) Moon, phases, explanation.

8) Lost stars in different places, their paths, their eclipses.

1) Assumption of earth rotation.

2) Assumption of land circulation.

STARS

If you look longer at the stars at night, you will see that all the stars are walking. There are noticeable stars, and everyone knows them. There are Vysozhary (a bunch of stars), there is the Ursa (also called the Rocker), there is Peter’s Cross (winter), there is the Triangle. Notice a bunch of stars and look at them all night. Where do they come from and where do they go? If you look at the Ursa, you will see that she is walking with all the stars in one direction across the sky, as if on a vault, first rising higher and higher above their heads, and then she will descend and set. If you notice by some sign where the Bear went, then stand in the same place the next night, right hand to the place where you entered, and face noon and look at the other stars in front of you. Whatever stars you look at, all of them, just like the Ursa, will go from the left along the arch to the top of the circle and go down to the right. Some stars will rise directly above your head, others in front - lower, some even higher in front - even lower, some in the very front - above the ground, but still they will come out to the left and descend to the right. If you turn back and look in the other direction, to the north, so that the sunrise is on the left and the sunset on the right, then in the same way on this side all the stars will rise from sunrise and set to the west. And in the same way, some will pass high above your head, others further and lower, others even further and lower.

If you look at the stars without telescopes and without the habit, you will first get confused and lose the star you were noticing. The main reason you get confused is that the stars do not all come out from behind the earth at night and set behind the earth; and as soon as the sun sets, many stars that are already on the move light up in the sky. The night finds only the stars at a quarter, half and three-quarters of the way. And in the same way, when it dawns, many stars go out in the middle of the sky. But if you pay attention to these stars, you will see that the stars that light up in the middle of the sky also go from east to west, and the stars that go out in the middle of the sky because the sun has risen also went from east to west. until they became visible to us. These stars still move in the same way as those that we see at night. They are only not visible to us during the day. If they had not walked, then the next day they would have been in the place where we left them, but this does not happen. The star that yesterday, as the sun set, lit up above our heads and set in the west behind the earth during the night, today lights up again above our heads. So she came to that place again. And the star that went out yesterday at dawn on the eastern side is now approaching the west only at night. This means that she walked during the day. There are telescopes such that the stars are visible during the day. And through these pipes you can see that all the stars are constantly moving around, day and night. —

You will also get confused because in the spring the sun rises earlier every day and sets later, and in the fall it rises later and sets earlier. Because of this, you will see new stars every day in the spring and you will not see those that you saw in the fall. Those stars that are visible in the fall will go out in the spring, because the sun rises earlier and sets later. Because of this, stars are visible even in winter that are not visible in summer. But [in] the large chimneys the stars are visible during the day. And if in winter at 7 o’clock in the evening a star was visible above your head, then in summer you look through the pipe at the place where it should be in winter, it will be there.

There are a lot of all the stars if you look at them through magnifying telescopes, but if you look at them with a simple eye, then there are not as many of them as it seems.

All the stars visible to the eye both in winter and summer, both large and small, are no more than 4000. And large noticeable stars are no more than 200.

Big stars were spotted thousands of years ago<астрономами>and drawn on paper. The stars are almost all the same, only one is larger, redder, the other is smaller, whiter, and they could not be copied if each walked differently, converged or diverged from another star. But the stars are all interlocked, like the heads of nails on a board. They neither converge nor diverge. And just as a rocker or a bear (or a saucepan) was made from stars, so these stars always walk. Therefore, groups of stars are drawn into different shapes, and these shapes are still the same now. In the calendars they write the signs of Aries (ram), Pisces, Aquarius (a man pours water), Capricorn (an animal with horns), Sagittarius, Scorpio (an insect), Libra, Virgo, Leo, Cancer, Gemini - these are all stars that are similar to these pictures. So patterns are drawn across all the stars. And these patterns are all the same. All the stars always walk as if interlocked, and the distance between one star and another is always the same, no matter where these stars are, above their heads or above the earth, towards noon or to the north. Sometimes it seems that when two stars are not high above the ground, they are further apart than when they are above their heads, but this only seems so, just as everything above the ground seems larger than above their heads. But astronomers use angles to measure the distance of a star from a star, and always and everywhere this distance is the same.

So the whole sky with all the stars moves like a canopy above our heads. When you look at the stars for a long time and often, you memorize them so that as soon as one familiar constellation appears, you now know - to the right, to the left, back, and in front, where which star will be, and what other stars will follow these. It’s just like on a familiar carpet, you know what the patterns will be when you unroll one end of the carpet. This is how astronomers know all the stars.

The whole sky walks above our heads and turns so that just as it went to the right, it will definitely come out to the left with the same stars. And the whole sky turns so that the same sky again appears in the same place in a day - in 24 hours. If at 8 o’clock in the evening the brightest star (Polar) is directly above our heads, and the Red Star is just rising from the east, then exactly 24 hours later the brightest star will again be directly above our heads, and the Red Star will just rise from the east ; and again the same stars will go as yesterday. If in winter at 7 o'clock in the evening we notice some bunch of stars in the west, then every time it is dark at 6 o'clock, we will see this constellation, but when the days become longer and it is dawn at 7 o'clock, these stars will be barely visible , and then they will not be visible at all. But if you look through the pipe at the place where it should be, you will see that the constellation is still there. The stars in the sky above us are still the same, but we see others in winter and summer only because they are extinguished by the sun. —

The sky turns and comes to its old place in a day - at 24 hours. But when there was no clock, it was a day only because the stars had returned to their old place. It was no longer possible to count the day by anything. You can't count by the sun, because the sunrise and sunset changes every day. If we say: today the sun rises at 4 o’clock or at 7 o’clock, then we know this only because we know that the stars turn around at the same time. And we divided this equal time into 24 hours and use it to count and measure when the sun rises and sets.

Where do the stars go when they go beyond the earth? And where do they come from when they emerge from behind the earth? Previously, they thought that there was water everywhere around the earth and that the stars fell into the water and went out, and on the other side they came out again and lit up. In the old days they told what people heard, how the sun hisses when it hits the sea, like a red horseshoe in the water, and the same about the stars. But now they travel across all the seas, east and west, and no one has ever heard of stars falling into the sea. Now they travel across the seas and over land further and faster than in the old days, and they have noticed that the stars also change when you move from place to place. If you go to the sunrise - to where the stars come from, then as you drive further, the stars will come out. Which star is supposed to rise at 10 o'clock in the evening, if you drive 1000 versts towards sunrise, it will rise half an hour earlier. If you drive even further, she will get up even earlier. This means that she was not in the water there beyond the land. If you go to sunset, then which star should set at 3 o’clock, that star will still be high and will set in another half hour. This means that she did not fall into the water before, but walked across the sky in the same way as before, only I couldn’t see it.

And no matter how much you go to the east, the further you go, the stars will come out more and more, and no matter how much you go to the west, the stars will set later and later. Therefore, we must think that the whole sky, just as it moves above us, just as it moves below us. The earth hangs in the middle of the sky, and the entire sky with all the stars turns around the earth from east to west.

<ЮГ И СЕВЕР>

If you remember the stars well, you will see that above your heads the stars move quickly in large circles, and in smaller circles more quietly, and at noon and midnight they move very quietly above the earth, so quietly that it is barely noticeable. But when you look closely, you will see that even there they walk and do not walk the same way at noon and at midnight. At noon the stars will just emerge from behind the earth, and now they will set, and at midnight the outermost stars will go higher, and there are those that will just set behind the earth, now they will come out again, and there will be those that do not even cling to the earth, but are circling. above the earth and make their small circle in the same way at 24 hours, just as the stars above their heads make large circles. If you look at the stars in Moscow, you will see stars in the north that do not go beyond the earth, but walk above and behind it, do not cling, and at noon you will see those that have just risen above the earth and will now set. If you travel from Moscow for half a day to Odessa, and at each station notice the stars in the north and south, you will see that the further you go south, the lower and lower the northern stars will begin to walk and begin to cling to the ground, and then they will become come in, and in the south they will emerge higher and higher from behind the ground, and make larger circles. And as you drive further, the whole sky will definitely descend to the north and rise to the south.<Значит, на юг ехать всё равно что на гору.>And you will drive so far, and in the north the sky will continue to descend, and in the south it will rise, as if it were still falling over. And the same will happen if you go north. The sky will roll over in the same way, only in the other direction. Closer to the north, stars will walk in the north without touching the earth, and in the south they will follow the earth, and closer to the south, stars will walk in the south without touching the earth, and in the north they will follow the earth. And in the very middle there will be a place where the stars will walk evenly along the edges - half underground, and half above the earth. At this point, the sky will not tilt either north or south and will spin smoothly above our heads - like a wheel on an axle. And this axis will be straight from north to south. If from this place, where the sky stands level, without falling over, you go straight to the sunrise, then the sky will still stand level and turn evenly, no matter how much you walk from east to west, or from west to east. Only if you go more to the east, the stars will rise earlier, and if you go more to the west, then later. Therefore, such a place where the sky moves evenly (without falling) above us is not only on earth, but there are many such places both to the west and to the east. This is not one place, but a whole road straight from east to west. Wherever you stand on this road, everywhere the sky with the stars will spin smoothly, without falling over. This middle road is called the equator.

PLANETS

When you look closely at the stars, you will notice that besides all the stars that turn with the whole sky, like the heads of nails on a board, there are few stars that do not turn with the whole sky, but walk on their own and walk closer to us than all approved stars. These stars are called wandering planets. It is clear that they are closer, because they obscure the confirmed stars. The month goes the same way. And it is clear that it is closer to us, because it obscures the established stars. If you look at the sky during the day through a telescope, you can see that the sun is eclipsing the confirmed stars, which means they are also closer to us than the stars.

How do the lost stars, the moon and the sun move?

If you look at the lost stars and notice how they walk, you will see that they first converge with one star, then with another, and again come to the old place and again go in the same circle. The moon and the sun move in the same way. But they are all lost and the month and the sun, just like the established stars, come out every day from sunrise and set in the west. But every time they come out from the east, they are in a different place than where they were yesterday, so that they lag behind or overtake the stars, some forward, others back, some to the right, others to the left.

For a long time people noticed the errant stars, the month and the sun and could not understand how they, together with the whole sky, walked and walked on their own. And until then they could not understand until one person came up with the idea that it is not the sky that moves over the earth, but the earth itself turns. He said: after all, it will still seem if the whole sky above you turns, or if you turn. If it seems to you that the sky is spinning from right to left, then spin yourself from left to right, everything will be the same. He says: maybe it’s not the sky that’s spinning, but the whole earth that’s spinning along the middle road from west to east. As we turn, new stars appear for us, more, more new, more - the sun rises, we turn again and the sun sets. He says: if we spin like this, then the lost stars and the month and the sun do not spin around us, but we spin. The newly lost stars, the month and the sun move from one star to another, they themselves walk. If so, then it will be easier for us to make out how they walk.

They began to think, and it turned out just like that. He says: if the earth did not spin, the whole sky would have to spin; and the sky is much larger than the earth. What kind of circle should he make? Another thing. If the sky were spinning, the errant stars and the moon and the sun would have to spin with them, but they walk in their own way. If there were many heavens, one closer to us - the moon revolves on it, another further away - there are comets on it, 3rd even further away - on it the sun, 4th even further away - on it the established stars, then one sky would obscure the other , and we can see everything right through to the last stars. —

If they say: how come we don’t hear that we are spinning? And he says: that’s why it doesn’t shake and the air and the ground move together.

7. [GEOMETRY]

Take a stake, stitch it from below, chop smoothly from above. On this top, place two even planks one on top of the other and pierce them with a nail, so that they neither tightly nor weakly move around the nail, so that these planks can be brought together, and apart, and wrapped around. Measure from the nail equally across the planks and drill holes in both planks. Pass the rope through the holes and tie it in one plank, and let the rope move in the other. Whichever strip you unscrew, the rope will stretch until you turn both strips straight.

Bring the splinters together so that the string is not stretched at all, and with the stake, move 20 steps away from the house. Strengthen the stake and point one splinter at one edge of the house, and the other at the other edge. There will be an angle between the splinters, and the rope will stretch out. If the angle is large, it will stretch out a lot; if the angle is smaller, it will stretch out less. Notice with something how long the rope has stretched. Then move straight away, as you walked from the house, another 20 steps and again point the torches at the edges of the house and notice what the angle has become. The angle will become smaller and the rope will stretch less. Measure how much less the rope has stretched. If you correctly counted 20 steps the first and second time, then the angle became exactly half as large, and the rope stretched exactly half the second time. If the first time it stretched 2 inches, then the second time it stretched only 1 inches. The further you move, the angle will be smaller and exactly as much smaller as you move further from the house. Move back 60 steps - three times less, and the angle will be three times less than before; move back 200 steps - ten times less than the first, and the angle will be 10 times less. Approach twice as close to the house - only 10 steps, the angle will be twice as large, come very close, the rope will stretch straight out. You can't get any closer, you can't stretch it any further. You can tell by the angle whether you are far or close from home. If you are standing somewhere and you don’t know how many steps are from the house, then by looking at the corner you can find out how many steps are from the house. - Take the corner. Notice on the string how much it has stretched. Bend the rope as far as it stretches and mark half. Move further away until the angle is half as large, until it comes down to the bent half. When it comes together, measure how far away you were. How far you walked is exactly the same distance from the first place where you stood to the house. The angle has become half as large, which means you have passed halfway. As much as there is in this half, so much in that half. If there is a house across the river and you want to know how many fathoms it is, you can measure the angle.

If you want to measure how many steps are from you to the pillar, but you can’t approach the pillar, then you can measure like this: point one splinter at one edge of the pillar, and the other at the other, measure how far the string stretches. Notice half and step back until the rope is only half stretched; How many steps did he walk from the first place to the pillar? You can measure this way, but it’s easy to make a mistake, because the corner will be small, the rope will not stretch out enough, and if you make a mistake, you won’t find half. To avoid mistakes, you can measure from a post like this: point both splinters at the post, then spread them in both directions so that they stand straight. Take a 4 arshin pole, place the middle directly opposite the pole along the spread splinters. Then move to the right end of the pole and point the right splinter at the pole. Note on the string what the angle will be. Again, spread the splinters straight, go to the left side of the pole and point the left splinter at the post. Notice on the rope what the angle will be. The angles will be the same. Then put the double pole in place of the previous one, so that there are 8 arshins. Then again point at the pole and measure the corners along the rope on both sides of the double pole. The angles will become smaller. Move back with the double pole until the angles are the same as before. When the angles become the same as they were before, measure how far you have walked from the first place. There will be exactly as much from the 2nd place to the 1st place as from the first place to the post.

If there is a pillar across the river and you want to measure how far it is, you can measure with a square and a pole without going to the pillar.

You can measure with angles in the same way as with a chain or rope. And you can measure with angles, not reaching the place you are measuring, but moving back as much as from place to place. But by measuring in angles, you can go through not the whole place, but half, a quarter, a third, an eighth and even less; You just need to make sure the angles are correct.

If I want to find out how far it is from me to a house across the river, I will point the torches at both ends, notice the angle and go back until the angle is half as large. But if there is nowhere to go back, you can measure without moving the entire place. I'll walk back 10 steps and see how much the angle has decreased. If the angle has decreased by a third, I don’t need to go further - I’ll say: 10 steps, third part. Three parts will be 30 steps. This means that the house is 30 steps away. That's exactly what will happen. If the square is made well, then you can walk even less. I moved two steps away, the angle decreased by the 15th part, which means two steps is the 15th part, the 15th part of two steps is thirty steps, so it will be. The whole point is that the square is made well and that you can see every small corner and how many small corners there are in the big one. You won't notice a small angle on the rope. In order to be able to mark small angles and divide them into the smallest ones, make a square like this. Stake the round board. Attach one board to the middle of this board with a nail.<на>the other two even splinters, so that they go steeply and do not go anywhere beyond the edge of the board. And all the angles you need, draw with a pencil from the middle along the splinters, as if using rulers. If you draw like a fool, you will cover the entire board and will not get any sense, but in order to prepare the smallest corners ahead of you, spread the splinters straight out, draw a line along them, then bring them together in the middle, draw another line under them. There will be two big ones straight angles. Then each large angle was divided into two more. Draw under them, there will be 4 corners.

And then divide it again, as much as you need, again and again -<до тех пор, пока видны.>

When you have the entire half of the board drawn into small even corners, then you will not need another splinter or string, but just one splinter so that it goes along the entire half of the board, from one corner to the other. Yes, you need to remember how many angles you have: 10, 20, 30, 40, 100 - no matter how many there are. With this square it is shorter and more dexterous to measure. You put a splinter on the line and point it at one edge of the house, then you point it from the same place to the other edge of the house, the splinter goes to the other line. Count how many corners the splinter has passed from one line to another. If she has gone through 10 corners, you don’t need to move away until there are only half - 5 corners, and you only move away until there are nine out of 10 corners. As it decreases by one corner, count how much you have walked. No matter how much you walk (100 steps, three steps, two inches), add up 10 times how much you walk - that’s how much it will be from the first place to home.

<Угольники делают хорошие, медные. Вместо доски круг медный расчерчен на утолки, а вместо лучинки труба ходит по кругу или два столбика с волосками, чтоб по ним наводить. И весь круг делят всегда на 360 уголков, половину на 180, четверть на 90, осьмушку на 45, треть осьмушки на 15; треть трети осьмушки на 5. Так что последние уголки чуть видны, если мерить их близко к середине.>

With these squares it is even easier to measure with a pole not from two edges of a house or from two trees, but from one tree or pillar or some thing. Place a splinter on the middle line where the entire half of the board is divided in half into two even corners, and point the splinter at the thing from which you are measuring. Then you take the pole and put it to your left right along the middle line on the board so that the pole with the splinter lies under that half large corner, move the square to the other side forever from the pole, and notice what angle the splinter makes to the left from the middle one. Now either put another pole the same way and go back until the angle becomes the same. Or, without putting down the pole, walk backwards until the angle is half as large. Or move back until the angle becomes one corner smaller. If there were all 6 corners, you moved 2 steps and there were 5 corners, then 6 times 2 steps - 12 steps. And even more briefly, you can do it like this. When you put the pole to the left, aim the splinter, notice the angle, how much the splinter moves away from the half-angle to the left. As far as she moved away, this is exactly the angle there of that thing, if someone from there looked and pointed at one end and the other end of the pole. There are three corners in this corner, and there are 10 arshins in the pole. You just need to find out how many miles, fathoms or steps 10 arshins, if you look at both ends, will give an angle of three corners. Here's how to find out. Make a stick of 10 eights an inch (1 in. 1/4 ) and look at both ends through the square. If the stick gives less than 3 corners, put it closer, more, put it further.

8. [PHYSICS]

WHERE DID FIRE COME FROM WHEN PEOPLE DIDN'T KNOW FIRE?

In one place, a lightning bolt hit a tree and lit it - it became a fire.

In another place, people piled a stack of damp hay, the hay caught fire - there was a fire.

In the third place, in the forest in the wind, the trees rubbed against each other - and caught fire. In the 4th place, the iron hit the stone and fire sprayed out. When people recognized the fire, they began to guard it so that it would not go out. And when it went out, they did the same thing that the trees did in the forest. They took two dry trees, rubbed them together, and a fire was lit; Then they learned to collect tinder and make fire out of stone. We learned to dry wood so that it would burn, we learned to burn oil and lard in candles so that it would shine. Then we learned how to get sulfur and make sulfur. Then we learned how to get phosphorus and make matches. They learned to get coal out of the ground to burn instead of firewood, they learned to make glass and use the sun to light it through the glass, they learned to collect electricity and use it to light and heat and shine. Everywhere there is a lot of things to burn, and everyone has something to light;<либо трутом из кремня, либо спичкой, либо стеклом.>

People argued with the sun and said: now we can do without the sun: we have fire and light everywhere, and we know what and how to burn. We don't need the sun.

The sun said: Where did you get the first fire?

- Not from you, but from lightning.

-Where does the lightning come from?

- From a thundercloud.

- Where does the cloud come from? - said the sun. — The cloud was water on the ground, I heated the water, raised it with steam and collected it into clouds.

People said: Yes, we don’t need lightning, we took fire out of the tree, rubbed the tree against each other, and there was fire.

-Who grew the trees? - said the sun. - Those trees that you are burning had seeds and lay on the frozen ground, I steamed, loosened the earth and pulled the trees towards me. Without me you wouldn't have a tree.

The people said: Well, we would take fire from flint.

“I dried the flint,” said the sun, “but you won’t believe me.” But you wouldn’t get fire from flint if there weren’t tinder and wood, and I grew them.

- Well, we took fire from the grass. We stacked a damp haystack, it caught fire, we took the fire.

- Who grew the grass?<Да и кто согрел ее в стоге.>

- So we pour water over the quicklime, and there will be a fire.

- Who made the water? All I did was dissolve it from the ice.

- So we will set off an electric spark and make fire.

- What will your electricity be made of - glass? This is how glass is made in fire, and without me there would be no fire. If you make electricity from iron and copper, then you also need to pour water on it, and without me there would be no water. Yes, perhaps, the sun said, I’ll leave you a fire - how will you heat and shine without me?

- We will be firewood.

“The wood is all from me,” said the sun. “If I hadn’t grown new forests, you would have burned everything long ago and you would have nothing to burn.”

-Then we will burn coal.

- All the coal is from me. Ground coal is the forests that I grew. The same forests as the present ones, only they were filled with earth. - Well, yes, perhaps, take coal - what will you use for the light? And you have nothing to shine without me either. You won’t have a torch if I don’t grow birch trees; You won’t have oil if I don’t grow hemp, flax, mustard, and sunflowers.

- We will burn lard.

- Where does the lard come from? From cattle. What do the cattle feed on? Grass, bread. I'm growing everything.

- There is oil, oil underground, we will dig it up, we will make kerosene and use it to burn and shine.

“Okay,” said the sun, “you will burn coal and shine with oil, where will you get the strength from?”

You think you have power. You have steam engines turning cars, running on rails, you have mills running on water and in the wind, you have horses and oxen pulling them, you dig, chop, and carry them yourself. Where do all these powers come from? Everything from me. Apart from me, there is no power in the world. - What I warm is strength.

Your steam engine works, moves valves, turns wheels and runs along rails. Who's spinning it? Warm. If there is no warm water, there will be no power.

WHY IS IT WARM?

When the sun is not covered by clouds, it warms and dries up water, resin and wax dissolve, iron and stone heat up, and if you place convex glass under the sun, then paper and wood catch fire from the sun. This first heat from the sun is called sunny.

If you rub wood against wood, the wood warms up. If you ride on an ungreased cart, the axle will warm up; if the horse hits the stone firmly with a spike, a spark will jump out. If you stack a stack of raw hay, it will settle and warm up, and then burst into flames.<Кузнецы, чтобы добыть огня, бьют молотком гвоздь и потом к нему приставляют серничек, и он загорается.>This is another heat from some force, either from friction, or from impact, or from pressure. This is called heat mechanical.

If you suddenly pour water into dry, burnt lime, the lime will warm up like boiling water and burst into flames. If you blow hard on a hot iron, the air will mix with the hot iron, and the iron will become hotter and burst into flames. This is the third heat, and the fire comes from a mixture: because water is mixed with lime or hot iron with air. This is called heat chemical.

When lightning strikes a tree, the tree catches fire. Not from the sun, not from friction and not from mixing, but from some other force. If you put your hand on a telegraph wire and turn on an electric machine, you will feel heat, and if you put gunpowder on it, it will flare up. And this fire will not be from the sun, nor from friction and not from mixing, but from some other force. Nobody knows where this power comes from. And this force is called electricity.

The heat is still the same in the sun and in fire, when you wipe it out of wood, and in fire, when mortar or a haystack burns, and in electric fire, when a thunderstorm ignites, but each heat is only shown differently. The warmth of the sun burns with rays from afar. These rays, far and near, warm equally. The sun's heat is only stronger when there are more rays. Mechanical heat acts only at the point where the force is directed; Only the area you rub is heated. And the harder you rub, the stronger the heat. Chemical heat acts through all particles of the body and is stronger the more particles mix with each other. More water and lime - more heat, less water and lime - less heat. Electric heat acts not as rays, but as a spark. The more electrical sparks, the greater the heat.

EXTENSIBILITY OF BODIES FROM HEAT

From the heat everything expands, from the cold everything contracts.

If the screw does not fit into the nut, then heat the nut and the screw will fit. And if the screw is weak, then heat the screw and it will be tight.

And if the silver ring is narrow on the finger and you hold the finger with the ring in a warm oven, what will happen? The ring will stretch on the finger, but the finger will stretch even more, and the ring will become even tighter.

And if the cork is tightly driven into the neck and the neck is heated, what will happen? The cork will become weak because the glass expands from the heat more than the cork.

Iron and iron are equally stretched and compressed by heat and cold. And different substances are compressed and stretched differently.

Silver radiates less from heat than the body, and glass more than cork.

WARMTH AND MOVEMENT

All movement in the world comes from heat. How can heat move things? The heat causes things to spread out. If only one thing existed in the world, it would move from heat, just as water moves when it is boiled from below or heated in the sun. But if you put a lot of different things into the water: dust, branches, oil, sand, paper, flour and others, then all these things would begin to move in the water, converge and diverge.

Heat in the world does the same thing. Things in the world are all different. One soon breaks from the heat, the other does not give in for a long time. Place damp boards, iron, wax, resin in the sun, and look in a week. The board will bend, push the iron, the resin will stick, drain, and the wax will slide off.

But if you collect liquids and gases under a hood and place them in the sun, even more changes will be made.

All movement is because things respond to heat differently.

Place a sheet of iron in the sun in summer. It will become so hot that you cannot touch it with your hand, and will not budge, only rattle a little. But if you put a cup of water, half of it will steam into the sky and you won’t be able to find it, and almost no heat will be added to the water.

The heat went to iron and water evenly, but iron does not give in to the sun, the heat remained warm, it just distributed it a little, and water gives in to heat. It became steam and moved to another place, but almost no heat was added to it.

But take it and put wax on a heated sheet of iron. The wax will melt and flow across the sheet. Therefore, the heat from the iron passed into the wax and dissolved it. Take this wax and pour it into a glass of water, the water will become warmer and steam will come out of it; catch this steam and put a piece of ice in it. The ice will melt and become water. Freeze the water, heat will be released into the air, catch the warm air, let it flow onto a sheet of iron, the iron will warm up again.

Catch the steam that comes out of the water, cool it, it will release the heat. Put the wax in the heat, the wax will dissolve. Cool on iron. The iron will warm up; Cool the iron in water, steam will come out of the water. Let steam into a cup of water, the water will warm up.

This is how heat transfers from one thing to another. Whatever thing lends itself to it, it moves it from place to place, like water or wax, breaking it into small parts; and whichever does not yield to it, in that it remains warm, as in iron.

This is how the sun heats and works. What heats more, works less; What works more, heats less. But neither work nor heat are ever lost, and work can always become heat, and heat can always become work.

The sand in the desert will be hot. How does he seem to get work? And you look - the air will become thinner, cold air will come in, and the wind will start working - the clouds will blow away.

The wind rushes; how can it become warm? The man built the mill. The wind whipped its wings and the millstones caught fire.

The fireman is heating the steam engine. The pistons moved, the wheels began to spin, and work began. How can she become warm? Don’t smear the wheels, but let them run on new rails; the wheel axles and rails will catch fire.

The sun is baking in the summer air in the forest. There is no heat, everything is cool. Where did the heat go? It does the work, it builds the trees. How can heat do this work? Light a tree, and all the heat that the tree has gained over a hundred years will come out in fire.

A horse eating oats is work. How to make it with heat? Lock the doors, she will inhale - only food.

WARMTH AND MOVEMENT

All movement in the world comes from heat. If only one thing existed in the world, it would be: it would move from heat, just as water moves if it is boiled from below or heated in the sun.

But things in the world are all different. One is soon heard from the heat, the other is not served for a long time. Put raw boards, iron, and resin in the sun and see what happens in a week. The board will bend, push the iron, the resin will dissolve and stick. And all these things will no longer lie the way you put them.

But if you collect liquids and gases under a hood and place them in the sun, even more changes will be made. All movement is because things respond to heat differently.

Place an iron sheet in the sun in summer. It will become so hot that you cannot touch it with your hand, but it will not budge.

Place wax on a heated sheet of iron. The wax will melt and flow over the sheet, and the iron will cool. Therefore, the heat from the iron passed into the wax and loosened and moved it. The heat in the iron did the work - it dissolved the wax, and when the work was done, the iron cooled.

As soon as a thing heats up, it either moves itself, but if it cannot move, it gives up its heat to another thing, and the other thing moves.

Now it’s different: as soon as any thing moves, then if something prevents it from moving, then instead of movement there will be heat again. —

River flows. This is movement. A man will build a mill. The wheels do not let water flow directly and stop the movement. The wheels will begin to spin, the thorns and millstones will light up.

Don’t smear the thorns and let them spin around the tree, and the tree will catch fire.

From the movement it will become warm.

Throw a piece of iron onto the anvil. The anvil prevented the iron from flying down. Feel the iron and the anvil - both have become warm.

The trees will dry out, begin to sway in the wind, and begin to rub against each other. Trees prevent each other from moving. They will rub and catch fire.

If you look carefully, you will see that from every heat movement is made, and from every movement heat is made; so that neither heat nor movement disappears, but from heat comes movement, and from movement again heat, and from heat again movement, and so on endlessly.

The sun bakes on the bare steppe and heats up the air and the earth. How, it seems, this warmth can become movement; and you look - the hot air over the steppe becomes less frequent. Clean cold air will pull in its place, and there will be movement - the wind.

How, it seems, we can make warmth out of this wind again. And you look - the wind is blowing into the mill. The wings are spinning, the thorns and millstones are warm. At least a small part of the movement became warmth. And the rest of the wind in another place will be of a different order, but will become warm. The water is boiling. How, it seems, this warmth can become movement. And the man caught the steam, locked it in the steam engine and began to push the pistons into it and turn the wheels - there was movement. The car is running. How can this movement become warmth? Feel the wheels and rails - they are burning. Already part of the movement turned into heat.

The sun warms the forest. There is no heat. It's cool in the forest. Where does this heat go? The heat contributes to movement, but the movement is not very noticeable to us. Movement is that trees grow.

How to make this movement warm? Light a tree, and all the heat that the tree has gained through movement—growth—over a hundred years will come out as heat. —

The sun warms the meadows and grows grass. There is no heat, but there is movement - the grass is growing. How to make this movement warm again? Put grass in a pile, it will catch fire.

The sun warmed, warmed the fields, made a movement - it grew bread. How can this movement become heat? The man ate this bread, and the blood warmed in it.

The man began to work, and there was movement again.

9. [CHEMISTRY]

HOW SUBSTANCES ARE COMBINED

Gases are rarely pure in the world by themselves, but almost always combine with other substances. Hydrogen is always mixed with oxygen, or carbon with oxygen, or oxygen with iron or copper, with silicon and with various other substances. When strong substances or gases are mixed with each other, it is difficult to make out what they are combined from, because they do not mix so that there is a piece of oxygen, a piece of iron, but they are mixed in such small particles that not even the smallest particle of the former substance can be found , but a new substance is being made.

<Когда два вещества смешиваются так, что можно разобрать хоть в увеличительное стекло самые маленькие частички веществ смеси, то это называется механическое соединение, но когда нельзя отыскать прежних частиц, и всё вещество делается другое и на вид, и на запах, и на вкус, тогда это называется химическое соединение. Если сметать вместе самый мелкий синий порошок с самым мелким желтым порошком, то сделается зеленый порошок. На вид порошок изменится; но на запах, на вкус, на ощупь он будет такой же. И если рассмотреть его в стекло увеличительное, то будут видны синие и желтые крупинки. Но если железо заржавеет, т. е. смешается кислород с железом, то ржавчина и на вид, и на запах, и на ощупь, и на вкус будет совсем не такая, как железо и кислород, и в какое увеличительное стекло ни смотри, не увидишь частиц кислорода и железа. Это химическое соединение.>

If you take oxygen and hydrogen and mix, and then ignite this mixture, now the hydrogen will ignite, take into itself as much oxygen as it needs, the whole mixture will become wet and the steam will become water, and in this water you will not find a single particle or oxygen , no hydrogen.

There is sodium metal and chlorine gas. If you eat a piece of sodium, you will die - it is poison. If you breathe in chlorine, you will also die, as if from poison. If you bring these two substances together, a fire will break out, it will crack like a gun, and a sediment will form. If you cool this sediment, the sediment will be salt. The same salt that is eaten with bread.

10. [MINERALOGY]

DIAMOND

<Золото дороже всего на свете — железа, меди и серебра. Оно дороже всего потому, что оно крепче железа, меди и серебра. Из золота можно сделать проволоку такую тонкую, как нитку. И на этой проволоке можно поднять человека.>

Of all the stones, the most expensive is the diamond. Diamond is stronger than anything in the world. A diamond can cut any other stone. And no other stone can cut a diamond. Diamond is also expensive because no stone and no glass shines like a diamond. —

Diamonds are also expensive because there are very few of them. The smallest diamond costs three rubles. Glaziers buy these to cut glass. A pea-sized diamond already costs 100 times more. But a diamond the size of a walnut costs more than a big house - one hundred thousand rubles<и больше. Таких больших алмазов есть только четыре во всем свете. Один в России, другой во Франции, третий в Италии, четвертый во Франции.>

Diamonds are found in the ground. They lie like small pebbles in red clay. When a diamond is found in the ground, it does not sparkle. But when they find out that it is a diamond, then it is refined, and then it begins to shine. Diamonds are polished with other diamonds.

11. [TECHNOLOGY AND MECHANICS]

<КАК СТРОЯТ МЕЛЬНИЦЫ НА ВОДЕ

Mills can only be built on flowing water - on a stream or river. It is necessary to block the river so that the water has nowhere to flow. You can block the water a hundred>

<КАК ДЕЛАЮТ КОЛЕСА

A large oak tree will be cut down. They will cut off an even piece of oak without branches and a fathom long. Then they will split this oak into several long strips. Then they will take these strips and put them in a hot bath, which is called a greenhouse. Then, when the oak strips have steamed, then they are bent. They will make a circle of wood, like a round pie. A breakdown will be confirmed in the side of this circle. A strip will be inserted into the hole, and three men will bend it. Bent and tied>

<КАК ДЕЛАЮТ ВОДКУ

They will take flour, grind it and sweep it with hot water to make a thick porridge. Then they will cool this mash and pour it into a large tub so that the tub is not full - less than half. Then yeast will be added to this mash. (Yeast is made from hops.) Then add water and wait until the mash rises in large bubbles. When the mash begins to ferment and rises level with the tub, then pour it into a copper container. Then they begin to boil the mash in a copper vessel. And on the dishes there is a large copper cap. And cold water pours onto the cap. As the mash boils, steam begins to rise from it, this steam cools under the hood and flows with vodka into the tap, and from the tap into the dishes.>

<КАК СДЕЛАТЬ ПЕСОЧНЫЕ ЧАСЫ

You need to take two bottles or flasks. And seal the necks of the bottles with wax or sealing wax so that a small hole remains. And pour fine sand into one of them. The sand must first be sifted through a sieve so that there is not a single pebble in it. Then place the empty bottle on top of the one filled with sand, so that the neck is on top of the neck. Then tie both bottles together. Then turn the bottles over so that the empty one is at the bottom and the one filled with sand is at the top. Then look at the clock, and when half an hour has passed, notice how much sand is poured into the empty bottle, and notice with paint a line on the glass for how long there will be sand. Then again, after half an hour, notice two lines of paint, and so on until all the sand has poured out. Then turn the bottles over again and notice the same thing on the other. Then the clock is ready, and you can always know by the dash how much time has passed.>

Notes

77. Crossed out: The Magi were people who guessed what would happen to people. Oleg called the Magi and said: Tell me what will happen to me, whether I will die soon and what will cause my death.

78. Crossed out: feed and drink it, but never ride it. And so they did. 10 years have passed.

79. Reason: Oleg’s servants answered: Your horse lived for a long time, we fed and watered it, and no one rode it. He became old and died. Oleg said: The Magi told me a lie. And I shouldn’t have believed them. If I didn't believe them, I would ride this horse. And I didn’t have anything else like it. And Oleg felt very sorry for the horse. He asked: Where did you put it? The servants said: We abandoned him. The wolves ate him. Only bones remained.

80. In the original: the forest is close

81. When I went to bed, I dreamed that all the mice in the world were collected in one barn, and that I had a fire in my hands, and someone said to me: Here, if you want, light the barn, and you will kill all the mice for that that they ruined your apple trees. And I seemed to be delighted and wanted to burn the barn; but then the foxes suddenly jumped out and began to ask me not to burn the mice.

82. The words: all alive and all the kidneys are covered with frost, inserted in proofreading.

83. In the margin next to the last two phrases it is written: Wolves on the trail.

84. In the original: October

85. The sun and the month, when they set and come out, seem larger than when they are high in the sky. Look at a person thirty arshins on the ground, and he will seem much larger than if you look at that person when he climbs a tree 30 arshins. The cross on the bell tower seems small, but how high is the bell tower? look at the cross on the ground, it will seem big.

86. Here's how to measure with angles: Take an even wooden circle (patch). Set the middle. Break off exactly half. This half was divided in half, each quarter in half again and in half again, so that there were 180 divisions on the half. Mark these divisions with a knife at the end of the semicircle. Establish the semicircle so that it can be rotated and so that it stands firmly. Smear a semicircle on your finger with thick clay. If you want to measure the distance between two stars, draw a semicircle so that you can see both stars. Look at one through a semicircle from the middle and draw a stick from the eye to the star to the edge of the circle, then look at the other from the same middle and draw another line across the clay with the stick from the eye to the edge of the semicircle. Two lines will meet at an angle. Look at the cuts to see how many divisions there are between two lines. If the star is further away from the star, then the angle will be larger; if it is smaller, then the angle will be smaller. This is how the distance between the stars is measured and verified. And the distance is always the same.

87. In the margin, opposite this place, it is written: what time is it

88. In the margins between the fifth and sixth chapters it is written: As a reverse. canopy. Axis tilt. The sun is at the equator. The movement of the sun and the moon.

89. In the margin next to this phrase it is written: North and south. The sun stops, the movement. Moon. Comets, planets. Distance of stars. Coup. The sun obscures the stars.

90. In the margin it is written: The planets, the moon, the sun (last) are obscured. Distances. If they put him on a vertical plane.<столб и стали бы вертеть>and the earth rotates on its axis, and the sun moves. The path of the planets. Doesn't the earth move? Will it be the same?

92. In the original: no closer

93. Word: where it is written twice.

95. In the margin next to this phrase is marked: compass.

Methodological development

lesson literary reading

on the topic of:

Fictional and scientifically educational stories.

L.N. Tolstoy "Swans", "Hares".

Topic: Works by L.N. Tolstoy "Swans", "Hares".

Goals:

1. Introduce the concepts of scientific, educational and artistic stories; Compare the genres of scientific, educational and artistic stories.

2. Learn to work with scientific and educational text (highlight facts and their descriptions);

3.Enrich the reading experience; expand your reading range by including work with books - reference books, Internet resources - in the educational process;

4. Practice reading aloud and silently.

Study skills:

Distinguish between scientific - educational and artistic (description) stories;

Work with books and reference books;

Characterize the works of L.N. Tolstoy from the circle of children's reading.

During the classes:

Stages

During the classes

I.Mobilizing stage of the lesson.

Show with color what mood you are in now.

For a reading lesson we will need a textbook, a notebook and your good mood.

2.Development of speech breathing.

We took in air. While exhaling slowly we say:

He who is always whining and bored does not notice anything

He who doesn't notice anything doesn't learn anything.

He who doesn't study anything is always whining and bored.

Raise your hands, who's running out of air?

3. Articulation gymnastics.

1. Tube. (play the pipe). Fold your lips into a tube shape.

2. Proboscis. Pull your closed lips forward as far as possible.

3. Delicious jam. Lick first the upper, then the lower lip in a circle.

4. Horse. imitate the sound made by a horse's hooves using your tongue.

5. Smile. Stretch your lips into a smile.

4. Checking the assignment.

1. At home you drew a picture for “The Lion and the Dog” and prepared a retelling of the passage that matches the picture.

2. Working with the table.

A.A.Fet (1820-1892)

F.I. Tyutchev (1803 - 1873)

L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910)

What are the surnames, patronymics, and first names of the writers?

Think about which of these people we're talking about in the next passage.

Born into a family with 5 children. His aunt was in charge of his upbringing, since his parents died.

Served in the Caucasus. As a military man, he participated in Crimean War(1817-1864), in the defense of Sevastopol.

Returning to his native estate, he opened a school for poor peasant children and wrote “ABC” textbooks and “reading books” for them.

Why did L. Tolstoy the Count, a nobleman, suddenly decide to open a school in Yasnaya Polyana for peasant children? (I wanted to teach literacy so that they could live better; to give them the happiness of communicating with a book, because everything could only be learned from books).

What personality traits does this indicate? (very kind person, broad soul).

3. Exam for the strength of knowledge. (Quiz on the works of L. Tolstoy)

● Vanya never ate plums and kept smelling them. And he really liked them. I really wanted to eat it. (Kostochka-true)

● Two brothers lived in one village; they plowed the land and sowed grain. The older brother had no children; the younger brother had four small children. (Two brothers - fairy tale).

● – You're bored because you're angry. Anger burns your heart. And we are cheerful because we are kind and do no harm to anyone. (The squirrel and the wolf fable)

Let's summarize what genres of works L. Tolstoy wrote?

Look atslide 1 , and think about what genre we haven’t come across yet? (story).

True story

Fairy tale

Story

Fable

Based on previous assignments, determine the topic of our lesson.

(Stories by L. Tolstoy)

That's right, now look at the next slide and, by guessing the “extra” word, determine the theme of the stories we will meet.

5. Activation of cognitive activity.

Slide 2.

What is shown in the picture? (hare, swan, cat, forest)

Which image is “extra”? (pet cat)

What can you call these drawings in one word? What do they have in common? (nature).

So what will the works be about? (about nature).

Well done!

Now let's try to guess the names of these stories.

Two people will form a word from red cards, and the other two from green cards.

(swans, hares).

Knowing the topic of the lesson, using supporting words, set a goal.

Slide 3

6. Work on the topic of the lesson.

a) Conversation about swans.

b) Reading the story by the teacher.

c) Analysis of the work.

d) Reading a story to children.

e) Analysis of the story

f) checking the assimilation of new material.

Teacher: Unfortunately, not all people know how to consider the beauty around them. Many famous writers they tried to help us learn about the life of the living world, teach us to see the beauty of nature, so that people would love it and take care of its riches.

Today we will touch upon the world of beauty in the works of L. Tolstoy “Swans” and “Hares”.

How many of you have ever seen swans? What do you know about them?slide 4

Swans

Since ancient times, the swan, one of the largest and strongest birds, has served as a symbol of beauty and love, purity and tenderness. There is an old legend about a swan song, which this beautiful bird supposedly sings before its death. It happens that swans can live in pairs for 20 or 30 years. This is how strongly they are attached to each other, as well as to their offspring. Thanks to this, they are already worthy of respect and can serve as an example for us people.

After I read the work, you will answer the question: what thoughts and feelings arose while listening? (after reading - children's answers)

Did you like the work? What did you find interesting?

What genre is this work? Prove it. (Here describes one day in the life of the main character).

How is the flight of swans described? Read it.

How many days does it take for birds to migrate? How did you know that they fly for a long time? Find these passages in your textbook. Read it.

What word is repeated in this passage? What is the significance of this repetition?

The word “fly” is repeated many times. This repetition indicates the distance of the journey.

What did you learn about birds at the end of paragraph 2?

(The student reads the passage:... Old, strong swans flew ahead, and those who were younger and weaker flew behind)

The young learn from the old how to live and the laws of flight.

What word in this passage evokes anxiety?

We're exhausted.

Why did one young swan land on the water? Read it.

How did the sea accept the bird? Read it.

Now close your eyes and imagine a picture of the night sea: a blue sky strewn with stars, a blue sea and a lonely snow-white swan in moonlight. What feelings does this picture evoke?

A lone swan is alarming. I'm afraid for him, what awaits him ahead.

What causes particular concern for the fate of the swan?

He's still weak. / The swan is lonely.

What happened overnight?

The swan rested. / He gained strength. / He wants to catch up with the others.

Tell me, is it hard for the swan now?

Yes, because he sighed like a man. This means it’s hard for him to fly alone.

Let's build a diagram describing the swan: (children use dictionaries of character qualities)

slide 5

Royal bird

strong

tired swan

brave

slide 6

Read the words of a famous German writer I. Goethe.

Only he is worthy of life and freedom who goes to battle for them every day.

I.Goethe

Our description diagram helps us understand that a swan, having such character traits, overcoming fatigue, the pain of loneliness, after resting with the last of its strength, rising again into the sky, is fighting for life.

Guys, these are the character traits that will help a swan survive.

Tell me again, what genre is this work?

Fiction story influences the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author.

Let's read about this in the textbook p.113

physical exercise (music from the TV show “In the Animal World” plays.)

Vocabulary work. Slide 6

You came across an expression on the threshing floor. What does it mean?

On threshing floors - in places where compressed bread is threshed.

Let's go back to the board and read the title of the next story we'll be introduced to. (Hares)

Did you like the story? What interesting things did you learn from it? Read it.

Why is it difficult to detect a hare by following its tracks? Read it.

Who are the hare's enemies? (People, dogs, foxes, crows, eagles.)

– Does this story evoke any feelings or experiences?

– This story did not evoke any feelings or emotions, so why was it created and written?

(Reports information, facts from the life of hares).

Guys, such stories are called scientific and educational. Scientific style - style scientific reports. Its main function is to communicate information and facts.

Let's read about this in the textbook p.114

Let's compare the two stories we studied today again.

Fill out the table “YES – NO” (on everyone's table)

Story

Evokes feelings

Reports only the facts

"Swans"

Yes

No

"Hares"

No

Yes

Conclusion: artistic or scientific - educational story

Scientific and educational story - a story in which the author does not convey his feelings and experiences, but reports information and facts from the life of hares. U. p. 114.

Fictional story – a story in which the author conveys his attitude towards the fate of the hero, the writer evokes in the reader sympathy, concern for the fate of the hero (swan), and a desire to support him in trouble. U.S. 113.

At the board we will build models of the covers of these works.

L.N.Tolstoy L.N.Tolstoy

"Swans" "Hares"

How are these works different?

7. Lesson summary.

Let's return to the lesson goals set at the beginning of our work and see if we have accomplished everything.

Get acquainted... (with the stories of L. Tolstoy)

Analyze... (two stories “Swans” and “Hares”)

7. Reflection.

Show with color what mood you are in at the end of our lesson?

8. Homework.

P.113 Learn by heart the last paragraph of the story, p.113-114 exc.read., TPO