QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM

In the discipline "Statistics"

Section 1. General statistics

The subject of statistical science and the tasks of statistics at the present stage.

Complete and reliable statistical information is the necessary basis on which the process of economic management is based. Making management decisions at all levels - from national or regional to the level of an individual corporation or private firm - is impossible without proper statistical support. It is statistical data that makes it possible to determine the volume of gross domestic product and national income, identify the main trends in the development of economic sectors, estimate the level of inflation, analyze the state of financial and commodity markets, explore the standard of living of the population and other socio-economic phenomena and processes.

Statistics is the science that studies the quantitative side mass phenomena and processes in inextricable connection with their qualitative side, quantitative expression of patterns social development under specific conditions of place and time.

The techniques and methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data used at all stages of the study are the subject of study of the general theory of statistics, which is a basic branch of statistical science. The methodology she developed is used in macroeconomic statistics, industry statistics (industry, Agriculture, trade and others), population statistics, social statistics and other statistical branches.

Statistical population, its types. Units of the population and classification of their characteristics.

The statistical aggregate is the natural resources of peoples, populations and natural phenomena, taken together within certain boundaries of place and time, influence the economic life of society. It is a single whole consisting of its individual units. Each of which can be described by a number of properties and features that they possess. Each of the features of the properties of units of a statistical population reflects a specific feature characterizing a given unit of the population.

A sign is a feature of a unit. totality. Unit selection aggregate, the list of characteristics that characterize depends on the purpose and objectives of this statistical study.

Unit stat. aggregates form together a single whole according to a number of properties and features that differ from each other. These differences are called trait variation. Variation is possible under the influence of external causes.

Classification of signs:

Qualitative (attributed) are determined by the presence or absence of any quality

Quantitative are expressed in numbers

Discrete ones take an integer value - continuous ones take any real value.

Method of statistics and main stages of statistical research.

Statistics has its own system of techniques and research methods aimed at the methods of commercial patterns, manifestation in the structure, dynamics (development) and interrelationships of social phenomena.

The main technique of statistical research. 3 stages:

1) stat. observation

2) summary and grouping of results

3) analysis of the obtained data

The method of mass observation (law of large numbers) is carried out by scientific and organizational collection of information, study of socio-economic processes or phenomena (population census).

The grouping method distributes the entire mass into disposable groups and subgroups. The totals for each group and subgroup are calculated and the results are presented in the form of tables. Processing of statistical indicators and analysis of results is carried out to obtain substantiated conclusions about the state of the study of phenomena and patterns economic development. Conclusions are presented in text form and accompanied by graphs and tables.

The Ministry of Statistics includes: regional, city statistics department, district statistics department. The composition of the Min. stat. includes: analytical, information resource and registration standards and classifications of the organization of statistics. observations and balances, stat. finance balance of payments, stat. prices, goods, markets, services.

To obtain statistical information, state and departmental statistics bodies, as well as commercial structures, conduct various types of statistical research. The process of statistical research includes three main stages: data collection, their summary and grouping, analysis and calculation of general indicators.

The results and quality of all subsequent work largely depend on how the primary statistical material is collected, how it is processed and grouped. Insufficient elaboration of programmatic, methodological and organizational aspects of statistical observation, lack of logical and arithmetic control of the collected data, non-compliance with the principles of group formation can ultimately lead to completely erroneous conclusions.

The final, analytical stage of the study is no less complex, time-consuming and responsible. At this stage, average indicators and distribution indicators are calculated, the structure of the population is analyzed, and the dynamics and relationships between the phenomena and processes being studied are studied.

The concept of studying the quantitative aspects of objects and phenomena was formed a long time ago, from the moment a person developed basic skills in working with information. However, the term “statistics”, which has come down to our time, was borrowed much later from the Latin language and comes from the word “status”, which means “a certain state of things”. “Status” was also used to mean “ political state”and has been fixed in almost all European languages ​​in precisely this semantic meaning: the English “state”, the German “Staat”, the Italian “stato” and its derivative “statista” - an expert on the state.

The word “statistics” received widespread use in the 18th century and was used to mean “state science.” Industry is called statistics practical activities aimed at collecting, processing, analyzing and making available for public use data on phenomena and processes public life.

Analysis is a method of scientific study of an object by considering its individual aspects and components.

Economic-statistical analysis is the development of a methodology based on the widespread use of traditional statistical and mathematical-statistical methods in order to control the adequate reflection of the phenomena and processes under study.

Stages of statistical research. Statistical research takes place in three stages:

• 1) statistical observation;
• 2) summary of the data obtained;
• 3) statistical analysis.

At the first stage, primary statistical data is collected using the mass observation method.

At the second stage of statistical research, the collected data undergoes primary processing, summary and grouping. The grouping method allows you to identify homogeneous populations and divide them into groups and subgroups. A summary is the obtaining of results for the population as a whole and its individual groups and subgroups.

The grouping and summary results are presented in the form of statistical tables. The main content of this stage is the transition from the characteristics of each observation unit to the summary characteristics of the population as a whole or its groups.

At the third stage, the obtained summary data is analyzed by the method of generalizing indicators (absolute, relative and average values, variation indicators, index systems, methods mathematical statistics, tabular method, graphical method, etc.).

Basics of statistical analysis:

• 1) approval of facts and establishment of their assessment;
• 2) identification characteristic features and the causes of the phenomenon;
• 3) comparison of the phenomenon with normative, planned and other phenomena that are taken as the basis for comparison;
• 4) formulation of conclusions, forecasts, assumptions and hypotheses;
• 5) statistical testing of the put forward assumptions (hypotheses).

Analysis and synthesis of statistical data is the final stage of statistical research, ultimate goal which is to obtain theoretical conclusions and practical conclusions about the trends and patterns of the studied socio-economic phenomena and processes. The objectives of statistical analysis are: determining and assessing the specifics and characteristics of the phenomena and processes being studied, studying their structure, relationships and patterns of their development.

Statistical analysis of data is carried out in inextricable connection with a theoretical, qualitative analysis of the essence of the phenomena under study and the corresponding quantitative tools, the study of their structure, connections and dynamics.

Statistical analysis is the study of the characteristic features of the structure, relationships of phenomena, trends, patterns of development of socio-economic phenomena, for which specific economic-statistical and mathematical-statistical methods are used. Statistical analysis concludes with the interpretation of the results obtained.

In statistical analysis, signs are divided according to the nature of their influence on each other:

• 1. Result trait - the trait analyzed in this study. The individual dimensions of such a feature in individual elements of the population are influenced by one or more other features. In other words, the result-attribute is considered as a consequence of the interaction of other factors;
• 2. Sign-factor - a sign that influences the characteristic under study (sign-result). Moreover, the relationship between the factor-attribute and the result-attribute can be quantitatively determined. Synonyms for this term in statistics are “factor characteristic”, “factor”. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of factor-attribute and weight-attribute. A weight feature is a feature that must be taken into account in calculations. But the weight trait does not affect the trait being studied. A factor attribute can be considered as a weight attribute, i.e., taken into account in calculations, but not every weight attribute is a factor attribute. For example, when studying in a group of students the relationship between the time to prepare for an exam and the number of points received on the exam, the third characteristic should also be taken into account: “The number of people certified for a certain score.” The last feature does not affect the result, however, it will be included in the analytical calculations. It is this kind of attribute that is called a weight attribute, and not a factor attribute.

Before starting the analysis, it is necessary to check whether the conditions are met to ensure its reliability and correctness:

• - Reliability of primary digital data;
• - Completeness of coverage of the population being studied;
• - Comparability of indicators (by accounting units, territory, calculation method).

The main concepts of statistical analysis are:

• 1. Hypothesis;
• 2. Decisive function and decisive rule;
• 3. Sample from the general population;
• 4. Assessment of characteristics of the general population;
• 5. Confidence interval;
• 6. Trend;
• 7. Statistical relationship.

Analysis is the final stage of statistical research, the essence of which is to identify relationships and patterns of the phenomenon being studied, formulate conclusions and proposals.

Statistical work, as a rule, is built in the form of a number of successive stages, or stages (Fig. 2.6.). However, this scheme is not a once and for all established template, and in the daily practice of healthcare institutions, where all of the listed stages are carried out, it can be modified depending on the tasks and goals of the study. Thus, filling out accounting documents corresponds to the stage of statistical observation. Drawing up periodic reports - the stage of statistical summary and grouping of materials. Analysis of the activities of a medical institution consists of compiling text reports, explanatory notes and market reviews that provide a scientific and medical interpretation and explanation of digital data.

Stages of statistical research

Any properly organized statistical work is built according to the same type of scheme, equivalent in its main stages and stages. A sanitary-statistical study consists, as already noted, of four successive stages, which, in turn, break down into a number of separate statistical operations.

First stage represents preparatory work, which includes drawing up a pre-thought-out, clear plan and research program. From thoroughness and scrupulousness preparatory work the result of the study as a whole largely depends.

Second phase- this is a statistical observation or collection of materials, which consists in recording individual phenomena, individual facts, their characteristics and elements. In medical institutions, this stage is carried out in the form of filling out certain accounting documents.

Third stage is a statistical (tabular) summary and grouping of the received materials, i.e. the first counting operation for processing “statistical raw materials”. Thus, a summary consists of systematizing and summarizing individual records and summing up the results in the form of statistical tables. A practical example of a summary would be reports from medical institutions.

Fourth stage- counting processing and analysis of materials. It consists in obtaining absolute numbers of derived quantities, their qualitative analysis and scientific and medical interpretation (comparison with other materials, results and conclusions, literary and graphic design, publication). The practical expression of analysis is the compilation explanatory note, i.e. text part of the report, summary analytical or market overview.

The identification by some authors of three stages (combining the first two) or expansion to five stages (separation of counting processing and analysis) is not significant. You can accept a scheme with any number of stages, because What is important is not their number, but continuity, inextricable connection, strict sequence, interdependence and conditionality, occurring on the basis of correct grouping. Mistakes made in one link can negate all subsequent work.

Preparatory work and its content. The task of the preparatory work is to draw up a program and research plan. The organizational plan is outlined as a whole and in individual stages. The most important direction in this case is to determine the purpose of the study, the plan and program of observation and summary.

The individual elements of the first stage can be presented in a certain sequence:

Establishing the purpose and objectives of the study, i.e. formulation of theoretical principles and determination of the real needs that necessitated this research, its limits and content.

Thus, the formulation “study of population morbidity” is unclear and very vague, therefore it is necessary to clarify the types of diseases to be studied (general, occupational, with temporary disability, etc.), the purpose of the work (clarification of the impact of working conditions, living conditions on the dental health of the population , quality of treatment and preventive or sanitary and anti-epidemic measures, etc.).

The researcher must first familiarize himself in detail with the essence of the issue and with published literary or documentary sources.

Definition of the object of observation, i.e. the main population of persons or phenomena being studied, its size and nature. The object of observation - who or what is subject to research - is, as a rule, certain groups of people (workers, employees, schoolchildren, conscripts, etc.). The objects can also be water supply sources, dormitories, commercial enterprises and other institutions subject to sanitary supervision; in special experimental work - animals and plants. Thus, the object of observation can be people, objects, phenomena, events, etc.

Determining the scope of observation. The question of the amount of material (patients, experiments, experimental animals) is related to the degree of homogeneity of the population being studied. The more homogeneous the population, the fewer observations will be required. In addition to the expected number of observations, the concept of scope of work also includes the degree of detail of the study, i.e. number of registered features.

One of the most important sections of the preparatory work is the establishment of the unit of observation, or the primary case of counting, i.e. those persons, objects or phenomena that would become an element of counting, a kind of “atom” of the population being studied, which bears its characteristics.

The establishment of a unified unit of observation ensures the comparability of materials, the ability to “compare comparable things,” because comparison is the soul of statistics, its basis. A clear definition of the unit of observation is necessary for the accuracy and homogeneity of the collected materials and for the correctness of subsequent generalizations. The content of the observation unit is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. For example, when studying various types incidence, each of them has its own unit of observation.

Even such seemingly simple questions included in the census form, such as literacy (how to count a person who can read but cannot write), Family status(registered or actual marriage), nationality (child of parents of different nationalities), etc.

Clarifications are also needed when recording doctors (whether to include those working outside their specialty or pensioners), when censusing the housing stock (what is considered an apartment); when determining surgical intervention (whether abortion, biopsy, skin graft, etc. are considered an operation). For example, if you ask the question “How is your dental health?” several people, one will evaluate it as bad, another as good, a third as satisfactory, etc. But all these are subjective assessments, and an objective study of the dental health of the same individuals can lead to the same assessments of dental health in all subjects or to other assessments that differ from the subjective ones.

The subject of observation requires serious attention, i.e. these are the organizers and participants of the work. It is necessary to provide in advance the strength and qualifications of the personnel filling out and developing documentation, monitoring and being responsible for collecting material. Moreover, the number of participants at different stages of work may change. The scope and program of the research often depend on the preparedness and qualifications of the participants.

The organizational or organizational and technical plan for observation also includes questions about the place and time of observation. The place of observation is the administrative-territorial boundaries: a village or several villages (stationary settlements with the presence of doctors), an administrative district, a city or its district, an edge, a region, a republic. In medical-geographical studies, devoted in particular to issues of regional pathology, certain areas are selected (for example, the study physical development children in the Arctic, the spread of dental anomalies among residents of Sakhalin, the spread of thyroid pathology among adolescents in the Magadan region). Research time, i.e. specific terms are determined both for the observation period and for the entire study as a whole (both development and analysis). Depending on the objectives of the study, its period is planned. For example, a study over the past 5 years or from January 1 of the next year, for a certain season (when studying the effectiveness of a summer health campaign or spa treatment). Sometimes the question of timing is closely related to the research method (anamnestic, follow-up, etc.). Along with the usual one-time “cross-sectional” studies over a short period of time, so-called “longitudinal” or cohort studies are used, i.e. long-term observations of the same population group (“cohort”).

The sources of materials should also be indicated. Most often they are primary medical records: “Statistical coupon” (registration form No. 25-2/u), “Card of a person leaving the hospital” (registration form No. 066/u), “Emergency notification of an infectious disease, food, acute occupational poisoning" (registration form No. 058/u) and others. Often these are specially designed documents. Sometimes the research is based on reporting documents. But because Since they contain ready-made and, moreover, limited groupings, they are of little use for in-depth analysis. For some works, literary sources such as bulletins of the World Health Organization (WHO) and other UN bodies, official reference publications, etc. are used.

In terms of observation, it is necessary to provide for various forms of practical implementation of the research results (drawing up a report and an explanatory note to it, a summary analytical review, a report, a publication, an article, a brochure, a monograph, a reference book). To summarize, an observation plan must answer the questions: what, where, when, by whom, and how will be studied. Speaking about the observation plan and program, it must be emphasized that the list of data to be collected is determined by the observation program, and the order of implementation of the program is established by the observation plan.

The research program includes several parts devoted to the choice of goal, tasks to achieve it, research methods, methods of observation, determination of the unit of observation and collection of relevant information.

In practice, the list of program issues and their individual characteristics is expressed in the form of an accounting and statistical document, mainly of the card type (form, form, questionnaire) and less often of the list type (magazine, statement, account book). Generally accepted officially valid medical documents of the same type are approved by the relevant authorities (registration - by the Ministry of Health, reporting - by the State Committee of Statistics, etc.).

An extremely important stage of work, which is of exceptional importance, is the creation of special programs for in-depth research.

Simultaneously with the research program, a plan and program for the upcoming summary (projects and layouts of worksheet) are drawn up. The preparation of the program is preceded by the theoretical development of the problem and practical tasks, the creation of working hypotheses, pathogenetic groupings, as well as the development of a system of indicators for future analysis. The English statistician A. Bradford Hill (1958) points out: “The main and decisive step in conducting special surveys is the preparation of an accounting form. No matter how much attention you give to this task, it can never be too much.”

When moving to mechanized accounting and development, space should be left for markup codes, and a clear formulation of questions and their number should be provided. Answers must be specific and relevant to specific conditions (particularly location and time).

Example of a statistical research program in pediatrics

There are certain rules for drawing up a statistical map.

Firstly, it should not be overloaded. It is necessary to include only the necessary and necessary questions that will be needed in subsequent development.

Secondly, questions must be clearly and precisely formulated and not cause different interpretations(and sometimes - mistrust or fear). Examples of unclear formulations include “presumed site of infection” (either the entrance gate of infection, or the area), “nutrition of an ulcer patient” (it is unclear whether this means diet or fatness, “low nutrition”).

Thirdly, the answers must be clear and categorical (yes, no, number, diagnosis). It's even better if they can be indicated with a hint for underlining.

Fourthly, the construction of the program involves coordination and mutual control of issues (diagnosis, gender, age, profession and work experience, year of graduation educational institution and so on.).

A necessary addition to the statistical map is instructions (sometimes printed on the map) explaining the meaning of terms, the procedure for filling out and maintaining documents using specific examples.

There are no trifles in statistics, and the condensed nature of the questions especially emphasizes this. N.I. Pirogov pointed out the importance of the brevity of the statistical program: “There is no need to go into detail about each subject: one word entered in the column will sometimes tell everything you need to know.” N.I. Pirogov also wrote that statisticians must act according to a single definite plan.

Sometimes a trial run on a limited scale is initially conducted to test the program and collection methodology.

A very important prerequisite for the success of the research is a collective discussion of the plan and program (and subsequently also the results) with interested and competent persons, as well as with the participants in the work.

Modern statistical studies can be extensive and large-scale. In any case, it is advisable to estimate in advance the amount of work to be done and the costs required for this. Part of the latter can be covered in certain cases from traditional sources (for example, salaries medical workers), but some may require special appropriations and the allocation of additional human and material resources.

State educational institution

Higher professional education

"Altai State Medical University"

Federal Agency for Health and Social Development

Department of Economics and Management

Test

in the discipline "Medical Statistics"

on the topic: “Stages of statistical research”

Completed

Checked:

Barnaul - 2009

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….3

1.1 Statistical observation………………………………………………………......5

1.1.1 Classification of statistical observation according to various criteria………………………………………………………………………………………7

1.1.2 Program and methodological issues of statistical observation…………………………………………………………………………………......12

2 Summary and grouping of statistical observation materials. The concept of a statistical summary, its objectives and content……………………..15

3 Rational forms of presentation of statistical material………….18

3.1 Statistical table and its elements………………...………………18

3.2 Graphic method for studying commercial activities…….....19

4 Solution of the problem……………………………………………………….20

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….21

List of used literature………………………………………………………...……22

Introduction

Sanitary (medical) statistics studies issues related to medicine, hygiene, and healthcare. It is an important part of social hygiene and health care organization and at the same time constitutes one of the branches of statistics.

There are three main sections in sanitary statistics: population health statistics, health statistics and clinical statistics.

Objectives of sanitary statistics:

identifying the characteristics of the population’s health and the factors that determine it;

study of data on the network, activities and personnel of health care facilities, as well as data on the results of treatment and recreational activities;

application of sanitary statistics methods in experimental, clinical, hygienic and laboratory research.

The materials of sanitary statistics are aimed at finding ways to improve the health of the population and improve the healthcare system.

Health statistics are used to:

1). Currently, the development of in-depth medical-biological, physical and other research methods, the introduction of new diagnostic technology leads to the accumulation of numerical data characterizing the state of the body and environment. Taking into account the amount of information about the body, one can understand the need to synthesize data using statistical methods;

2). Determination of sanitary and hygienic standards, calculation of doses of medications, determination of standards of physical development, assessment of the effectiveness of applied methods of prevention and treatment.

Accounting and evaluation indicators reflect the volume or level of the phenomenon being studied; analytical indicators are used to characterize the development features of a phenomenon, its prevalence in space, the relationship of its parts, and the relationship with other phenomena.

Statistical methodology is a collection general rules(principles) and special techniques and methods of statistical research. The general rules of statistical research are based on the provisions of socio-economic theory and the principle of the dialectical method of cognition. They form the theoretical basis of statistics. Based on a theoretical basis, statistics applies specific methods digital coverage of phenomena that find expression in three stages (stages) of statistical research:

1. Mass scientifically organized observation, with the help of which primary information is obtained about individual units (factors) of the phenomenon being studied.

2. Grouping and summary of material, which represents the division of the entire mass of cases (units) into homogeneous groups and subgroups, calculating the results for each group and subgroup and recording the results in the form of a statistical table.

3. Processing of statistical indicators obtained during the summary and analysis of the results to obtain substantiated conclusions about the state of the phenomenon being studied and the patterns of its development. This is the concept of science - Statistics. The subject of statistics, as a science, is the study of the quantitative side of mass social phenomena in inextricable connection with their qualitative characteristics. From this definition, three main features of statistics can be identified:

1. the quantitative side of phenomena is explored;

2. mass social phenomena are studied;

3. given quantitative characteristic mass phenomena based on the study of qualitative parameters.

Statistics involves the use of a set of dialectical methods of cognition. In the process of statistical research, special methods are used that are invented to better represent statistical populations.

A statistical population is a mass of units united by a single qualitative basis, but differing from each other in a number of varying characteristics. Variation (change) of characteristics (usually quantitative) can occur in time, in space, in the mutual change of one characteristic from another. For example, size wages worker on the amount of products he produces.

1.1 Statistical observation

Statistical observation is the systematic, scientifically based collection of data or information about socio-economic phenomena and processes. Statistical observation is the initial stage of economic and statistical research.

1) Statistical observation must meet the following requirements: the observed phenomena must have a scientific or practical value, express certain socio-economic types of phenomena;

2) direct collection of mass data should ensure the completeness of facts related to this issue, since phenomena are in constant change and development. If complete data is missing, the analysis and conclusions may be misleading;

3) to ensure the reliability of statistical data, a thorough and comprehensive check of the quality of the collected facts is necessary, which is one of the most important characteristics statistical observation;

4) scientific organization of statistical observation is necessary in order to create best conditions to obtain objective materials.

The tasks facing the manager determine the purpose of observation. The general purpose of statistical surveillance is to provide information support for management. the goal determines the object of statistical observation - the totality of phenomena and objects covered by observation. The object of observation consists of certain units. The unit of the totality can be a person, a fact, an object, a process, etc. The observation unit is the primary element of the object of statistical observation. This element is the carrier of signs recorded during observation. The unit of observation is the element of the population from which the necessary data is collected. The choice of object and units of observation depends on specific conditions. Observation units have many different characteristics. Correctness, which manifests itself not in an individual phenomenon, but in a mass of homogeneous phenomena, when generalizing the data of a statistical population, is called a statistical pattern. For the study of statistical regularity, the law of large numbers is of fundamental importance. In a large number of observations, random multidirectional deviations cancel each other out. During the observation process, the most significant or interrelated features are used to record data. Clarity in defining the unit of observation makes it possible to reasonably determine the recorded signs of observation with a minimum number of signs related to the problem or phenomenon being studied. The clarification and formation of characteristics of an observation unit is carried out on the basis of the following general rules: These general approaches to determining the characteristics of an observation unit are complemented by specific features of the processes being studied.

An observation unit should not be confused with a reporting unit. A reporting unit is one from which reporting data is conditionally received in accordance with approved forms. If observation is carried out by reporting, then the reporting unit may generally be the same as the observation unit. The reporting unit is also called the reporting unit. It may not coincide with the unit of observation.

After defining the object, the researcher must highlight the boundaries that define the population or phenomenon being studied. To limit an object, specific values ​​or limits of characteristics are established. Such quantitative restrictions on characteristics are called qualifications. This is a series of characteristics, the quantitative value of which, when conducting statistical observation, serves as the basis for taking into account (or not classifying) a unit in the population being studied.

An observation point or period is the time for which data is recorded. The moment of observation is established in accordance with the purpose and characteristics of the phenomenon. In practice, it is also called the critical moment. Some phenomena and processes have seasonal or other cyclical components.

1.1.1 Classification of statistical observation according to various criteria

Statistical observation is divided into:

1) according to the type of observations into 2 groups:

According to the coverage of units of the population into continuous and non-continuous;

Statistical observation consists in the collection of primary statistical material, in a scientifically organized registration of all significant facts related to the object under consideration. This is the first stage of any statistical research.

The grouping method makes it possible to systematize and classify all facts collected as a result of mass statistical observation. This is the second stage of statistical research.

The method of generalizing indicators allows you to characterize the phenomena and processes being studied using statistical values ​​- absolute, relative and average. At this stage of statistical research, the relationships and scales of phenomena are identified, the patterns of their development are determined, and forecast estimates are given.

At the first stage of statistical research, primary statistical data, or initial statistical information, is formed, which is the foundation of the future statistical building. For a building to be durable, its foundation must be sound and of high quality. If an error is made during the collection of primary statistical data or the material turns out to be of poor quality, this will affect the correctness and reliability of both theoretical and practical conclusions. Therefore, statistical observation from the initial to the final stage - obtaining final materials - must be carefully thought out and clearly organized. Statistical observation provides the source material for generalization, the beginning of which is a summary. If, during statistical observation, information is obtained about each of its units that characterizes it from many aspects, then these summaries characterize the entire statistical aggregate and its individual parts. At this stage, the population is divided according to signs of difference and united according to signs of similarity, and total indicators are calculated for groups and as a whole. Using the grouping method, the phenomena being studied are divided into most important types, characteristic groups and subgroups based on essential characteristics. With the help of groupings, populations that are qualitatively homogeneous in significant respects are limited, which is a prerequisite for the definition and application of generalizing indicators.

On final stage analysis, using generalizing indicators, relative and average values ​​are calculated, a summary assessment of the variation of characteristics is given, the dynamics of phenomena are characterized, indices and balance sheets are used, indicators are calculated that characterize the closeness of connections in changes in characteristics. For the purpose of the most rational and visual presentation of digital material, it is presented in the form of tables and graphs.

Statistical observation - the first stage of statistical research

Statistical observation is the first stage of any statistical research, which is a scientifically organized accounting of facts characterizing the phenomena and processes of social life, organized according to a unified program, and the collection of mass data obtained on the basis of this accounting.

However, not every collection of information is a statistical observation. We can talk about statistical observation only when statistical patterns are studied, i.e. those that manifest themselves only in a mass process, in a large number of units of some aggregate. Therefore, statistical observation must be systematic, massive and systematic.

The systematic nature of statistical observation lies in the fact that it is prepared and carried out according to a developed plan, which includes issues of methodology, organization, technology for collecting information, quality control of the collected material, its reliability, and presentation of the final results. The massive nature of statistical observation suggests that it covers big number cases of manifestation of this process, sufficient to obtain true statistical data characterizing not only individual units, but also the entire population as a whole.

Finally, the systematic nature of statistical observation is determined by the fact that it must be carried out either systematically, continuously, or regularly. The study of trends and patterns of socio-economic processes characterized by quantitative and qualitative changes is possible only on this basis. From the above it follows that the following requirements are imposed on statistical observation:

• 1) completeness of statistical data (completeness of coverage of units of the population being studied, aspects of a particular phenomenon, as well as completeness of coverage over time);
• 2) reliability and accuracy of data;
• 3) their uniformity and comparability.

Programmethodological and organizational issues of statistical observation

Any statistical study must begin with a precise formulation of its purpose and specific objectives, and thereby the information that can be obtained during the observation process. After this, the object and unit of observation are determined, a program is developed, and the type and method of observation are selected.