Reforms of Alexander 2 (Great Reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

Russia remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom longer than any other state. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had completely outlived its usefulness, and the conflict, which had been brewing since the 18th century, reached its peak. There was an urgent need to change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial equipment, the need for manual labor increasingly disappeared, but landowners still actively used the labor of peasants, imposing huge taxes on them. As a result, the peasantry went bankrupt everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in serfdom and the income of landowners. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the bankrupt landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the loss Crimean War, which completely undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, at one of his speeches before the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it will happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms has begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:

Peasant reform (1861);

Financial reform (1863);

Educational reform (1863);

Zemstvo reform (1864);

Judicial reform (1864);

Reform of state self-government (1870);

Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and bourgeoisie, was carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy himself an arable plot for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, open commercial and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 was the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as openness and freedom of the press (relative) appeared; newspapers could discuss events carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. It was also filmed iron curtain", and people could leave the country more freely.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity and openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.

Zemstvo and city reforms created open local government bodies, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this significantly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing Peter's conscription system with universal conscription. This allowed for the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.

Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2

It is not for nothing that the political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are called great. Thanks to them, the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire was laid - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for a fair and open trial. The press became freer, allowing citizens to be able to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The liberation of peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to emerge from the crisis and create conditions for further successful growth, taking into account new economic realities.

Overall, the country has experienced significant changes that have helped it reach new way development, more successful and modern.

Counter-reform policy of Alexander 3

short biography Alexandra III

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because... the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.

In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the hungry. Before he ascended the throne, he was an ataman Cossack troops, Chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.

Historical portrait Alexander III was more reminiscent of a powerful Russian peasant than the sovereign of an empire. He had heroic strength, but was not distinguished by mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.

In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmara, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.

Domestic policy of Alexander III

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III occurred during the period of struggle between two parties: liberal (wanting the reforms begun by Alexander II) and monarchical. Alexander III abolished the idea of ​​Russian constitutionality and set a course for strengthening autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law “Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace.” To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.

Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country came from the freethinking of his subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father’s reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered the main source of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and the student court were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.

changes in zemstvo reform under Alexander III:

In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was brought under the strict control of governors. Merchants and officials sat in the City Dumas, and only rich local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.

Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:

In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, and magistrates' courts were practically eliminated.

Changes in peasant reform under Alexander III:

The poll tax and communal land use were abolished, compulsory land purchases were introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasant Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in military reform under Alexander III:

The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.

Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created and reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.

To conduct combat in mountainous areas, mountain artillery batteries were created, mortar regiments and siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.

In 1892, river mine companies, fortress telegraphs, aeronautical detachments, and military dovecotes appeared.

Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, for the first time, non-commissioned officer training battalions were created that trained junior commanders.

A new three-line rifle was adopted for service, and a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. Military uniform replaced with a more convenient one. The procedure for appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Social policy of Alexander III

“Russia for Russians” is the emperor’s favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian; all other religions were officially defined as “other faiths.”

The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.

Foreign policy Alexandra III

The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname “Peacemaker.”

Economic policy of Alexander III

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and factories grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia.

At the end of the 80s, the state budget deficit was overcome; revenues exceeded expenses.

Results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called “the most Russian Tsar.” He defended with all his might Russian population, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, there was a rapid industrial boom, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also gave birth to a revolutionary spirit in the Russians, which would break out under his son Nicholas II.

25In the Russian social movement of this period, three stages can be clearly distinguished: the 50s - 60s, the 70s - early 80s. and 80-90s. Need to identify character traits these stages and give a brief analysis of the main requirements put forward at each of them.

First stage (50-60s): weakening of censorship after Alexander II came to power. The process of formation of the liberal-bourgeois and radical-democratic currents of social thought is underway: the participation of Westerners and Slavophiles in the development of peasant reform, the activities Free Russian printing house in London, publication by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev of “The Polar Star” and “The Bell”, their influence on the radicalization of public opinion, the beginning of the emergence of populism, the activities of “Land and Freedom” in the 1860s.

Second stage (70s - early 80s): formation and flourishing populism. Main ideas: the theory of non-capitalist development of Russia, the idea of ​​the transition to socialism. the main objective- relying on the peasant community, bypass capitalism and move directly to socialism.

The Populist movement went through four developments stage:

1) mid 60's- early 70s- stage of formation: the activities of disparate circles (attempt by D.V. Karakozov on Alexander II in 1866)

2) early 1870s- 1876- propaganda stage. Main event - "going to the people" with the aim of rousing the peasants to fight the autocracy. The reasons for the failure: the peasants’ lack of understanding of abstract ideas, their tsarist illusions;

3) 1876 -1879- rebellious stage. The movement was organized - a new “Land and Freedom” was created (1876);

4) 1879 -1881- conspiratorial, or heroic, stage. The split of “Land and Freedom” due to disagreements on the issue of methods of struggle into “Black Redistribution” (G.V. Plekhanov) and “People’s Will” (A.D. Mikhailov). The transition of the Narodnaya Volya to the tactics of individual terror. The goal was regicide and disorganization of the government, which was supposed to facilitate the seizure of power.

Key dates

April 1879- Narodnaya Volya assassination attempt on Alexander II

November 1879- an attempt to blow up a royal train near Moscow.

February 1880- explosion of the Winter Palace dining room, carried out by S. A. Khalturin.

Results: The tactics of conspiracy and terror did not justify themselves and led to the opposite result - the policy of counter-reforms of Alexander III. The Narodnaya Volya themselves spent all their energy organizing the regicide; they had no strength left to seize power. Moreover, they underestimated the power of the bureaucracy.

Third stage (80-90s): decline of the revolutionary struggle. Having spoken about the degeneration of populism, it is necessary to characterize the essence liberal populism and the views of the leader of this movement - N.K. Mikhailovsky: peaceful propaganda of socialist ideas.

There was also a process of distribution Marxism in Russia: the group “Emancipation of Labor” (1883-1893) by G. V. Plekhanov and his criticism of populism. Causes special popularity of Marxist ideas in Russia: the urgency of the labor issue, the low standard of living of the population, the logic and simplicity of Marxist constructs, their accessibility to the understanding of the common man, the peculiarities of the mentality of the Russian people - collectivism, mutual assistance, communalism, messianism.

It is also necessary to talk about liberal movement associated primarily with zemstvos, and conservative the flow of social thought (K.P. Pobedonostsev, M.N. Katkov), its influence on the development of the country’s internal political course.

Conclusion: social thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. It was distinguished by ideological diversity: all directions were represented - from reactionary-conservative to radical-democratic. Social thought developed in an atmosphere of lack of openness and minimal civil liberties, which led to the opposition of most social movements to the authorities.

great figure in Russian history. Alexander Nikolaevich was a reformer tsar; during his lifetime, Russian society received changes in many areas of life that required this.

Zemstvo reform of Alexander II

In January 1864, the emperor signed a decree on the creation of local elected authorities - zemstvos. The basis of the zemstvo reform was the idea of ​​​​dividing the spheres of influence of society and the state.

Local management became a public matter, and central management became a state matter. Thus, the state itself limited its power at the local level.

Zemstvos were supposed to deal exclusively with local problems. Zemstvos were in charge of many aspects of life. Zemstvos dealt with issues of schools, medical institutions, roads, post offices, statistics, and industry.

The election system in Zemstvos took place through curiae. To make it easier to understand what we are talking about, you can choose a synonym for the word “curia” - class, caste. In Zemstvos there were three curias - district landowners, rural peasants, and townspeople.

Deputies were elected from each curia to the zemstvo; in another way they were called public people. The first curia delegated a number of deputies equal to the sum of the deputies of the second and third curia.

It is worth noting that the zemstvo councilors did not receive any monetary compensation for their activities. Zemstvos did not have executive power and, in order to implement their undertakings, were forced to resort to the help of the administration.

Under Alexander II, zemstvos appeared in 34 provinces of the Russian Empire. The zemstvo reform had a beneficial effect on the standard of living in the localities. The province began to actively develop. Zemstvos gave impetus to the development of education and healthcare.

City situation

In 1870, the City Regulations appeared. The principles of election, all-class and collectivity became the basis of the City Regulations. Self-government appeared in Russian cities, represented by the city duma and city council. City Duma elected the city mayor, who presided over both the Duma and the council.

City government was elected. Elections were held every four years. People who paid taxes and reached the age of 25 could vote for candidates. The city government dealt exclusively with issues of the city, its development and improvement.

Judicial reform of Alexander II

The Emperor carried out a large-scale judicial reform. On November 20, 1864, it received a new democratic judicial system. The judicial reform of 1864 was progressive and timely.

The main principles of the reform were:

• publicity,
• electivity,
• universality,
• competitiveness,
• independence of the court,
• equality of all before the court and the law,
• collegiality and irremovability of judges.

The territory of the Russian Empire was divided into judicial districts. The judicial system of the Russian Empire was divided into two parts: the general court and the local court. The local court consisted of a volost court (dealing with the affairs of peasants) and a magistrate court (domestic disputes).

Major cases were dealt with by the district court. One of the main innovations in the new judicial system was trial by jury. The jurors were chosen by lot from different classes. All complex cases involving serious consequences were tried with a jury without fail.

Military reform of Alexander II

In 1861, Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin became Minister of War, who immediately decided to reform the Russian military system. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, and service life was reduced from 20 to 12 years.

The army command and control system was also reorganized, with a number of troops reporting directly to the Minister of War. A little later, in the middle of the decade (let me remind you, we are talking about the 60s of the 19th century), a new military judicial charter appeared.

A new system of army educational institutions was created. Dmitry Alekseevich’s greatest merit is the abolition of conscription and the introduction of universal conscription. The entire male population of the country was subject to military service starting at the age of 20.

They served in the ground forces for six years, and in the navy for 7. However, there was a list of restrictions characteristic of military service. Representatives of the clergy, the only breadwinners in the family, as well as representatives of the peoples of the Caucasus and Central Asia did not join the army.

Conscripts with secondary and higher education served a shortened term of service. People without education learned to read and write directly in the army. This state of affairs contributed to an increase in the literacy of the population.

The number in peacetime was noticeably reduced. However, in the event of the outbreak of war, the Russian military system had a good resource for the rapid mobilization of the population.

The listed reforms were the main ones in the activities of Alexander II; in addition to them, a number of reforms were carried out, for example, in the field of education, finance and censorship.

Personality of Emperor Alexander II. Emperor Alexander was born on April 18, 1818 in Moscow. He is the first child in the family of Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich, who at the end of 1825 became Emperor Nicholas I. At the same time, his seven-year-old son Alexander was proclaimed heir to the throne by a special manifesto.

Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a writer and one of the most educated people of that time, was appointed as the Tsarevich's mentor. He compiled a special curriculum for the high-born ward, the fundamental principle of which Zhukovsky defined as education for virtue. The tasks of training and education were closely intertwined.

Twice a year, exams were held for the heir, in which he invariably showed good results. After one of them, Emperor Nicholas I wrote to Zhukovsky: I am pleased to tell you that I did not expect to find such success in my son. Everything goes smoothly for him, everything he knows. - knows well, thanks to your way of teaching and the jealousy of teachers.

The most important part of the heir’s education was his travels around the country. In the spring of 1837, accompanied by V. A. Zhukovsky, Alexander traveled around Russia for more than 6 months. Railways did not yet exist, and the heir had to travel by steamboats and horses, covering vast distances.

The future king not only met with local officials, toured ancient temples, museums, historical and natural attractions, but also willingly visited houses common people and listened carefully to their stories about the joys and sorrows of their lives.

At the age of 19, Alexander Nikolaevich was fluent in five languages ​​(Russian, German, French, Polish and English), and also had extensive knowledge of history, mathematics, physics, natural history, geography, statistics, jurisprudence, political economy and the Law of God. In addition, he had good knowledge of military sciences.

He was distinguished by his broad outlook, refined manners and kindness of character. He made the most favorable impression on those who had the opportunity to meet him both in Russia and abroad.

As Tsarevich, Alexander Nikolaevich traveled abroad several times.

During the longest such trip, from May 1838 to June 1839, he visited Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Bavaria, Austria, Holland, Italy, England and other principalities and kingdoms. Alexander Nikolaevich became acquainted with the political methods of governing various countries, visited parliaments, and was received everywhere with the greatest respect. Pope Gregory XVI even ordered the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral to be specially illuminated in his honor.

In April 1841, in St. Petersburg, the marriage of Alexander Nikolaevich and Princess Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, who by that time had converted to Orthodoxy and took the name Maria Alexandrovna, took place.

From the beginning of the 1840s. Nicholas I involved his son in government affairs. He takes part in the work State Council. Committee of Ministers, Finance Committee. During the Tsar's absences from the capital, the Tsarevich was entrusted with the responsibility of making decisions on current affairs. Since the late 1840s. Alexander Nikolaevich was appointed chairman of several committees that discussed the most important issues of state life, including the issue of improving the situation of serfs. In 1849, Alexander Nikolaevich received the position of commander of the guard and head of all military educational institutions in Russia.

At the time of his accession to the throne, Alexander II was a man of mature years, possessing extensive knowledge in various fields, and having a fairly deep understanding of the complex mechanics of public administration. He was on the throne from 1855 to 1881.

Abolition of serfdom. Manifesto February 19, 1861

Alexander II took the reins of power at a difficult historical moment. The Crimean War was going on, events in the theater of military operations were not unfolding in favor of Russia, the situation within the country was becoming tense, finances were upset. It was necessary to end the costly, unsuccessful war for Russia as quickly as possible.

In the first year of his reign, Alexander I focused on solving this particular problem. After the end of the war, the government faced internal problems. Alexander II very soon became convinced that it was impossible to govern the country in the old way, that a thorough restructuring of the entire cumbersome state building was required, that reforms were required almost everywhere.

Already on the first presented report of the Minister of Internal Affairs, which spoke about many of the country’s problems and the difficulties of resolving them, the tsar wrote: I read with great interest and thank you, especially for the frank presentation of all the shortcomings that, with God’s help and with general diligence, every year will be corrected.

A special place in this series of pressing problems was occupied by the problem of serfdom. Speaking to the Moscow nobility in 1856, the Tsar loudly declared the need to abolish serfdom: It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it begins to be abolished from below on its own.

This path turned out to be difficult and long. Only five years later, serfdom faded into the realm of history. During this time, a huge amount of work was carried out preparatory work. Various types of commissions were established at the state and local levels, which considered the legal, financial and administrative aspects of the upcoming social restructuring.

The Tsar wanted the future great act of emancipation of the peasantry to reflect the will of the entire nation. However, a significant part of the nobility did not want change. Alexander II decided with a single act of will to turn the dark page national history. For this he had enough strength and means. And yet he tried to do it in such a way that the first estate, which meant so much to the monarchy and the empire, would remain satisfied with the changes. He hoped that the nobility itself would realize the inevitability of future changes. That is why the solution to the problem of serfdom required such a long preparatory period. The expected transformations affected all parties to one degree or another. social life huge Russian Empire.

The project for the abolition of serfdom was drawn up by a special commission convened by the tsar at the beginning of 1859. It included senior government officials and famous public figures. By the end of 1860, a plan for the liberation of peasants from serfdom was developed. In February 1861, the emperor signed a Manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom. This was a great and beneficial measure.

By 1861, serfdom was not preserved everywhere in the country. However, in the most populated and agriculturally developed provinces European Russia it existed. This zone ran in the north along the St. Petersburg-Vologda line (approximately the 60th parallel), and in the south it was limited by the Don River (approximately the 45th parallel). In the east, the boundary of this area was marked by the Volga River, and in the west - the state border of the Russian Empire. More than half the population of Russia lived in this vast geographical square, and it was here that the fortress foundations were especially strong.

In other regions of the country there was either no serfdom at all (northern European Russia, Siberia, the Baltic states), or an insignificant part of the cultivators were in the fortress.

The difficulty of the problem to be solved was that the land in most cases belonged to the landowners. To pass a law stating that farmers from such and such a date are considered legally free meant depriving them of their means of subsistence. Therefore, it was necessary not only to give freedom to 25% of the peasants (it was precisely this part that by that time experienced the hardships of personal lack of freedom), but also to provide them with economic conditions for their future life.

The authorities were also concerned about the future position of the noble class, whose representatives were the main owners of land. (Among the landowners there were also representatives of other classes - merchants, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, but at that time they owned about 10% of the total land fund, which was in the hands of private individuals.) The well-being of the first, noble, class, which gave the country the bulk of the officer corps and officials , was directly related to the situation of the peasantry.

When starting to develop transformative measures, the government sought, on the one hand, to provide freedom to the black-sown (ordinary) peasants, to provide them with the necessary minimum for independent existence, and on the other, to protect the interests of the nobility.

On February 19, 1861, on the sixth anniversary of his accession to the throne, together with the Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom, the monarch approved several legislative acts that constituted the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom. From that day on, serfdom was abolished, and the peasants were given the title of free rural inhabitants. Their legal affiliation with the landowner was eliminated once and for all. The manifesto and new laws were published and read in churches throughout Russia.

Peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property. Police power, which until then belonged to the landowners, was transferred to the bodies of rural communities. Judicial powers were partially transferred to volost courts elected by peasants, and partially to magistrates.

The landowners retained the right to all the land that belonged to them, but were obliged to provide the peasants with permanent residence (land near the peasant farmstead), as well as field allotment (agricultural land outside the settlements).

For the use of the land they received, peasants had to either work off its value on the landowner's lands, or pay quitrent (in money or products). The size of the estate and field allotment was determined by special statutory charters, for the preparation of which a period of two years was allotted. The peasants were given the right to buy out the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the field allotment.

Peasants who redeemed their plots were called peasant-owners, and those who did not do so were called temporarily obligated.

The peasants who were leaving the tutelage of the landowners were now obliged to unite into rural societies and decide all matters of their local government at village gatherings. Village elders, elected for three years, were required to carry out the decisions of such meetings.

Rural societies located in the same area constituted a peasant volost, the affairs of which were in charge of meetings of village elders and special elected representatives of rural societies.

At the volost meeting, the volost foreman was elected. He performed not only administrative (managerial) but also police functions.

These were common features peasant self-government, which was established after the fall of serfdom.

The government believed that over time all the land provided, according to the reform, to the peasantry, would become the full property of the peasants.

Most peasants did not have the means to pay the landowner the entire amount due, so the state contributed money for them. This money was considered debt. The peasants had to pay off their land debts with small annual payments, called redemption payments. It was assumed that the peasants' final payment for the land would be completed within 49 years.

Redemption payments were paid annually by the entire rural community, and the peasant did not have the right to refuse the allotment and change his place of residence. For this it was necessary to obtain the consent of the village assembly. Such consent was given with great difficulty, since payments were a common duty. This was called mutual responsibility.

Of course, the transformations carried out did not satisfy many. The landowners lost free labor, and although they retained financial leverage, in the future they lost their influence on the peasants. The peasants were not happy that they received the land not for nothing, but for a ransom that they had to pay for many years.

In some areas, riots even arose, because a rumor spread that the real royal charter, where the land was supposedly transferred to the peasantry without any ransom, was hidden by the bars. The events in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and in the village of Kandeevka, Penza province, where the peasants drove out all government officials and established their own, correct, power, became famous. In these villages it came to bloody clashes between peasants and troops.

Overall, a huge event historical significance occurred without serious social upheaval. Despite all the imperfections of the reform of 1861, the state managed to solve a difficult historical task - to eliminate the humiliating serfdom and open the way to intensive social transformation of the country.

Zemstvo, city, judicial and military reforms. Changing the education system

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the entire character public life in Russia, and the authorities were faced with the task of re-structuring it. With the Manifesto of February 19, 1861, a period of transformation began, which later became known as the era of great reforms.

In January 1864, the emperor approved the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions. According to this Regulation, persons of all classes who owned land or other real estate within the districts, as well as rural peasant societies, were given the right to participate in economic management affairs through elected councilors who made up district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, convened several times a year. For everyday activities, district and provincial zemstvo councils were elected.

Zemstvos took care of all local needs: building and maintaining roads, food supply for the population, education, and medical care. To solve these problems, funds were needed, and local governments received the right to establish zemstvo fees (taxes).

Zemstvo self-government was introduced gradually. It was first established at the beginning of 1865 in the Samara province. By the end of that year, similar institutions had been introduced in 17 more provinces. By 1881, zemstvos already existed in 33 provinces of European Russia.

A few years after the opening of zemstvos, cities also received the right to broad self-government. In 1870, Alexander II approved the City Regulations, by virtue of which city dumas, formed from elected councilors from urban classes, and city councils elected by these dumas began to manage in cities the same affairs that zemstvos did in rural areas.

Participation in the selection of public city councils was granted to representatives of all classes who owned real estate (house, land) in a given city or were engaged in any trading business. City governments were given the right to introduce city fees (taxes).

Another important reform of Tsar Alexander II was the transformation of legal proceedings. The old court was secret, cases were decided in a clerical manner, the accused were often not even called to court, and the investigation was often carried out ineptly and biasedly. Cases dragged on for a long time, and judicial red tape caused general dissatisfaction.

In November 1864, the Tsar approved a new Judicial Charter, designed to create a quick, fair, equal and open court. From now on, the judicial system corresponded to the most modern world standards. A jury trial and the institution of sworn attorneys (lawyers) were introduced.

The reign of Alexander II was marked by military reform. On January 1, 1874, a decree introducing universal military service was signed.

For more than 100 years, the upper classes in Russia were exempt from compulsory military service. Its entire burden lay mainly on the peasantry, among whom annual recruitment drives were carried out. Those who were shaved were separated from their families for many years and returned home in old age, since their service life was 25 years.

The decree introducing universal military service stated: The cause of defending the Fatherland is the common cause of the people and the sacred duty of every Russian subject.

Since 1874, all young people over 21 years of age began to be called up to serve military service. Benefits were also provided in this regard. Released from service marital status(the only son in the family), the service life was shortened depending on the level of education of the future warrior, and some categories of the population, such as teachers, were not drafted into the army at all. The service life was now 6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy.

During the reign of Alexander II, great changes took place. In the field of education. New higher educational institutions were opened. In 1863, the University Charter was approved, providing higher education institutions with broad autonomy. All issues of internal management were now transferred from the official trustee to the council, elected from among the teachers. Not only changes in current teaching, but the entire internal organization of university life were concentrated in the hands of the university itself, headed by an elected rector.

In 1864, a new School Charter was approved, according to which gymnasiums and real schools were introduced in the country.

The gymnasiums taught mainly humanitarian subjects and foreign languages, including Latin and Greek. They prepared students to enter universities. In real schools, preference was given to natural science disciplines. The schools guided graduates to enter higher technical institutions. Both gymnasiums and real schools provided children with a completed secondary education.

Under Alexander II, primary (two- and four-year) school education for children from low-income families, mainly peasants, was widely developed.

In just 26 years of his reign, the number of various kinds of schools, gymnasiums and colleges increased many times over. In 1880, the number of educational institutions exceeded 23 thousand (about 1.5 million students), while in 1861 the number of educational institutions of various profiles did not reach 5 thousand.

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer king. It was he who made a huge number of changes in the country, significantly changing Russia’s position on the world stage. The tsar's activities were given conflicting assessments: some considered him almost a saint, while others sincerely wished for the death of the monarch. A number of attempts were made on his life, each time Alexander was saved by a real miracle. But at sixty-two he died from a bomb thrown at his feet. Tragic death the emperor shook up Russia and gave rise to a whole series of prohibitions and a departure from the liberal course that Alexander led. The reform of Alexander 2, associated with the abolition of serfdom, the modernization of the judicial system, educational reforms - all this went down in history as the largest changes in Russian society.

Judicial reform (1864)

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 became a turning point in Russian record keeping. The courts were now divided into two parts: the local one dealt with the affairs of the townspeople and peasants, and the district one dealt with more serious crimes. A jury trial was introduced, the members of which could belong to any class. His powers included the consideration of serious crimes. Discrimination was abolished: absolutely everyone was equal before the judiciary. Decisions were not made secretly; it was impossible to change the judge if for some reason he did not suit the participants in the process. The rules were the same for everyone and could not change during the meeting. In addition, the administrative division of the country also changed: the empire was now divided into districts.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 deprived the emperor himself of real power in the courts; the only thing he could do was pardon a nobleman who was threatened with confiscation of property.

Zemstvo reform (1864)

The next after the abolition of serfdom was the zemstvo reform of Alexander II. A new body of local self-government was introduced - the zemstvo, whose members were elected by voting (representatives of all classes received access to it). The zemstvos themselves were divided into administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. Only rich people could be elected to zemstvo assemblies, and representatives of each property class had their own elections. Later, participants in zemstvo assemblies appointed a chairman and a certain number of members of zemstvo councils.

This reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create local authorities whose powers included resolving local issues. Such changes made it possible to significantly improve the lives of all segments of the population, giving more independence to provinces and districts, but there were also disadvantages. Metamorphoses implied the forced collection of money from the population for the implementation of all functions of zemstvos. So the zemstvo reform of Alexander 2 allowed the new local authorities to assign taxes and duties themselves.

Abolition of serfdom (1861)

The great reform of Alexander 2 was a response to increasing social tension in the country. The question of abolishing serfdom had been around for a very long time, but all previous monarchs constantly ignored it, oppressing the peasants more and more. There was a constant danger of rebellion; the kings understood that if the entire peasantry rose up, no one would be able to resist it. This was precisely the reason for Alexander’s strong-willed decision.

On February 19, 1861, the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was published. But everything was not so simple: the reform of Alexander 2 turned out to be controversial. The table will tell you more about it.

The peasant reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the formal liberation of the peasants, but the preservation of their dependence on the landowners in reality.

Military reform (1857)

As part of universal conscription, military settlements were created in Russia - original camps, where peasants performed their duties on the ground for part of the day, and the rest of the time they were drilled by commanders. First of all, the reform of Alexander 2 liquidated these settlements.

Changes were also made in the field of military service: the exact number of conscripts was appointed annually, and all persons over 21 years of age drew lots, which determined who would go to serve. Of course, there were certain benefits: the only breadwinner, the only son, or the one whose older brother served in the army was not taken away. Military education shortened the length of military service, which varied depending on the unit.

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected administration: military districts were created, each of which was headed by a local governor-general. The army received new weapons, and railway troops were created. Now, if a prisoner did not go over to the enemy’s side, he was considered a victim and received monetary compensation for the time he spent in captivity.

The great reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create a strong, albeit small army, which had a huge number of people in reserve. Technical modernization and command revisions had a positive impact on the combat readiness of the troops.

Educational reform (1864)

And education was not spared by the reform of Alexander 2. The table will tell you in more detail about all the innovations.

Censorship (1857)

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected periodicals. The state has always controlled what writers wrote, but with the introduction of the reform the situation changed dramatically: now works that exceeded a certain number of pages were not subject to censorship. Scientific works and state publications were not subject to censorship at all.

Urban reform (1870)

It became a logical continuation of the zemstvo. The urban reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the introduction of self-government in cities. Now all power was transferred to city councils and councils, which were responsible to their superiors. Only wealthy people could apply for a place in self-government bodies.

Conclusion

After Peter the Great, no tsar carried out as many transformations in Russia as Alexander 2. His contribution to the development of the country is truly invaluable. The reforms of Alexander 2 changed the state, stuck in the Middle Ages, laying the foundation new page in the history of Russia.

Very different from all previous Russian 19th century reforms(and even more so from 18th century reforms).

1. Alexander's peasant reform. February 19, 1861 occurred abolition of serfdom. The reform, of course, was spontaneous and unfinished. However, all peasants became free. Not all of them were ready for this, and many simply could not find themselves after their release. The only serious disadvantage of the reform was that it was carried out during an economic crisis. All other shortcomings were a matter of time. The main “advantage” was that the peasants were not simply driven out onto the streets, but received plots of land for use with the right to purchase on credit.
2. They were liquidated in 1857 Military settlements, founded by Alexander I.
3. In 1863, financial reform took place in order to modernize financial structure states under the capitalist industrial type of state economy (according to the European model). Was created National Bank.
4. In the same year, education reform took place ( University Charter). The result was global transformations in the structure higher education. Universities have become more independent and similar to current higher education institutions.
5. In 1864 it was held Zemstvo reform(local government reform, which gave more powers to local authorities).
6. The judicial reform of the same year also brought the structure of judicial institutions closer to its modern form.
7. 1870 - the year of reform of city government (gave impetus to the industrial development of cities).
8. In 1871, the education reform was finally completed. This time, Alexander took up secondary education with the help of the Minister of Education Dmitry Tolstoy.
9. In 1874, military reform was carried out. The reform was multi-structural and affected military education, technological aspects, organizational issues, uniforms and many other nuances, such as cancellation corporal punishment or the introduction of universal conscription instead of recruitment and military settlements.

Reforms Alexandra II in the 60s-70s of the 19th century they really became “ Great reforms", although not all were completed. However, the Russian Empire actually became a legal state. In addition, these changes resolved many social and economic problems in society and made it possible for the normal development of industry in the country.

In 1880, Alexander II began to develop the Constitution of the Russian Empire, but did not have time to complete it due to his death.

Death of Alexander II.

Many historians of the Soviet era describe the general discontent of the people internal politics AlexandraII. In fact, this information is greatly exaggerated. The fact is that in several multinational cities of the Russian Empire (primarily in Moscow and St. Petersburg), radically minded “intelligentsia” decided to continue the activities of failed revolutionaries ( Decembrists).

Secret organizations began to form throughout the country. Some of them even had several cells in different cities. Most of these terrorist organizations were sponsored from abroad by supporters of the disintegration of the Russian Empire, and there were plenty of them in Europe.

Over the last 15 years of the reign of Alexander II, six attempts were made on his life. At least three recent assassination attempts were carried out by a radical terrorist group. People's will", the ideas of which, in fact, were far from the people's will.

1. 1866 - a bullet whistled over Alexander's head in St. Petersburg.
2. 1867 - in Paris, a Polish terrorist fired, but hit a horse.
3. 1879 - in St. Petersburg, a terrorist shot the emperor four times, but he had serious problems with the shooting, because not a single bullet reached the target.
4. 1879 - “Narodnaya Volya” blew up a train carriage, but the emperor, by a lucky coincidence, switched to another train before that.
5. 1880 - the same individuals planted an explosive device in the Winter Palace, but Alexander did not have time before the explosion, as he was delayed due to a meeting with the Prince of Hesse.
6. On March 1, 1881, Narodnaya Volya member Rysakov threw a bomb at the imperial carriage on Malaya Sadovaya in St. Petersburg. Alexander Nikolaevich was not injured, but a Cossack of his Life Guards was seriously wounded. Despite the requests of the guards, the emperor jumped out of the carriage and bent over the wounded man, trying to help him. At this moment another Narodnaya Volya Grinevitsky crept up to the emperor and threw a bomb at his feet. An hour later, the All-Russian Emperor died from wounds incompatible with life in the Winter Palace. Grinevitsky was killed immediately by his own bomb. In addition, as a result of the assassination attempt, the same wounded Life Guardsman and a bystander, a 14-year-old boy from the butcher shop, died. Another 17 people were injured.

All participants in the crime were captured (6 people in total) and sentenced to death penalty. Just on this day, Alexander II was going to approve the draft constitution, but it didn’t work out.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to identify and liquidate all of Narodnaya Volya. A little later, it broke away from this organization " Terrorist faction", one of the members of which was the elder brother IN AND. Lenin .

After the death of Alexander II, his second son Alexander Alexandrovich ascended the throne (