American geneticists Harvard University For several decades, detailed studies have been carried out on the inhabitants of Europe, Asia, America, Oceania and Africa for differences in heredity among people of different races and nations that inhabit our planet.

Scientists were able to find out that all people on earth are divided into 22 clans, which trace their origins to a common ancestor at the base of the clan. Naturally, there were initially much more genera, but only these 22 genera survived in the process of evolution. This was done thanks to the analysis of the male Y chromosome and the mutations that have occurred in it over many millennia. Each person carries within himself a kind of “biological document” that cannot be lost - this is human DNA. DNA genealogy methods allow you to gain access to that part of DNA that is passed unchanged from father to son through the direct male line - the Y chromosome.

Lives in Europe 4 main genera, which are also called haplogroups:
1)R1b - Western European
2) R1a - Eastern European or Eurasian
3)I - Old European (divided into I1-Scandinavian and I2-Balkan)
4)N - Balto-Finnish or Finno-Ugric

Based on these studies, Ukrainians are predominantly characterized by the R1a genus, which is found in more than 55% of the population, and in some areas reaches 80% of the people living there. In the northern, native Russian (Russian) regions (Novgorod, Pskov, Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Murmansk, Kirov region) the percentage of this genus does not exceed 30-35%. In these regions of Russia, two other genera are common - N (Balto-Finnish) and I1 (Scandinavian). Only in some southern Russian regions does the R1a genus occur with a frequency of 50-55%.

The R1a genus is predominantly characteristic of steppe peoples and their descendants (among Western Europeans it is extremely rare and does not exceed 3-8%). Among Europeans, in addition to Russians, this genus is widespread among Poles (about 57%), Ukrainians (more than 55%), Belarusians (about 50%), Czechs (more than 35%), and Hungarians (about 25%). Among some Asian peoples, the R1a genus is dominant - among the Pashtuns of Afghanistan (70%) and the Balochis of Pakistan (70%), the Punjabis of Pakistan and India (80%), the Tajiks and Kyrgyz (about 70%), the Nogais, Bashkirs and Kazan Tatars (from 40 to 50%), Altaians - 47%, Kazakhs and Uzbeks - approximately 30%, Crimean Tatars- 33%. Of the already non-existent peoples, haploggroup R1a was the main one among the Khazars, Scythians and Sarmatians. This was shown by genetic samples taken at their burial sites.

How are things going with the Slavs and Balts in general? From which genera do they predominantly come?
1. Poles - 57% R1A, 16% R1b (Western European), 7% I1 (Scandinavian), 10% I2, 5% N
2. Ukrainians - 55% R1a, 2% R1b, 15% I2, 4% I1, 5-10% N, 8% E (African), 7% J (Semitic)
3. Belarusians - 50% R1a, 10% R1b, 3% I1, 16% I2, 10% N (Finno-Ugric)
4. Russians (all) - 47% R1a, 8% R1b, 18% I1+I2, 20% N
5. Slovaks - 47% R1a, 17% R1b, 17% I1+I2 (in total), 10% E, 3-5% N
6. Czechs - 38% R1a, 19% R1b, 19% I2+I1, 8% E, 6% J
7. Slovenes - 37% R1a, 21% R1b, 12% I1, 20% I2, 7% E, 3% J
8. Croats - 37% R1a, 16% R1b, 32% I2, 6% I1, 6% E, 6% J
9. Serbs 20% R1a, 11% R1b, 30% I2 (Balkan), 20% E, 6% J
10.Bulgarians 20% R1a, 20% R1b, 20% I2, 20% E, 11% J
11.Bosnian Croats - about 75% I2 (Balkan)
12. Russians (north) - 35% R1a, 5% R1b, 35% N (Finno-Ugric), 15% I1 (Scandinavian)
13. Russians (center) - 45% R1a, 8% R1b, 5% I1, 10% I2, 15% N, 5% E
14. Russians (south) - 55% R1a, 5% R1b, 15% I2 (Balkan), 5% I1 (Scandinavian), 5-10% N
15. Latvians - 40% R1a, 40% N, 11% R1b, 7-8% I1+I2
16. Lithuanians -38% R1a, 45% N, 5% R1b, 10% I1+I2
17.Estonians -35% R1a, 9% R1b, 33% N, 18% I1
18. Norwegians - 28% R1a, 28% R1b, 34% I1, 5% N, 1% I2
19. Swedes - 20% R1a, 22% R1b, 35% I1, 11% N, 4% I2
20. Finns - 8% R1a, 4% R1b, 59% N, 28% I1, 1% I2

It is also interesting to note that the Rurikovich family - the founders Ancient Rus' turned out to be Balto-Finnish or Finno-Ugric in origin (genus N). The American study was based on DNA analysis of several dozen descendants of this glorious princely family.

Scientists have recently come close to deciphering the human genetic code. This in many ways allowed us to take a fresh look at the history of the Russian ethnic group, which turned out to be more ancient and not as homogeneous than previously thought.

In the depths of centuries

The human genome is a changeable thing. During the evolution of humanity, its haplogroups have undergone mutations more than once. Today, scientists have already learned to determine the approximate time when this or that mutation occurred. Thus, American geneticists found that one of these mutations occurred about 4,500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain. A boy was born with a different set of nucleotides from his father - he was assigned the genetic classification R1a1, which arose instead of his father's R1a.

This mutation, unlike many others, turned out to be viable. The R1a1 genus not only survived, but also spread over a large part of the Eurasian continent. Currently, approximately 70% of the male population of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine are carriers of haplogroup R1a1, and in old Russian cities this number reaches 80%. Thus, R1a1 serves as a kind of marker of the Russian ethnic group. It turns out that in the veins of most men modern Russia the blood of an ancient boy who lived in the late Neolithic era flows.

Approximately 500 years after the birth of haplogroup R1a1, migration flows of its representatives spread to the east - beyond the Urals, to the south - to Hindustan and to the west - to the territory of modern European countries. Archaeologists also confirm that the inhabitants of the Central Russian Plain went far beyond the boundaries of their ancestral range. Analysis of bone remains of burials in Altai of the 1st millennium BC. e. showed that in addition to the Mongoloids, pronounced Caucasians also lived there.

There is no Tatar

One of the issues of the popular science publication The American Journal of Human Genetics published an article about research by a Russian-Estonian team of scientists into the gene pool of the Russian people. The researchers' findings were quite unexpected. First: the Russian ethnos is heterogeneous in its genetic nature. One part of the Russians, living in the central and southern regions of the country, is close to the neighboring Slavic peoples, the other part - in the north of Russia - is genetically closely related to the Finno-Ugric peoples.

The next conclusion is more interesting. Scientists have never been able to detect the notorious Asian element in the Russian genome. The Tatar-Mongol set of genes is not present in any noticeable quantity in any of the Russian populations. It turns out that the established expression “Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar” is wrong.

The head of the laboratory of genomic geography at the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor Oleg Balanovsky, considers the Russian gene pool to be “almost entirely European,” and calls its differences from the Central Asian one “really great,” as if they were two different worlds.

Academician Konstantin Scriabin, head of the genomic direction at the National Research Center Kurchatov Institute, agrees with Balanovsky. He says the following: “We did not find any noticeable Tatar additions in the Russian genome, which refutes theories about the destructive influence of the Mongol yoke.” In addition, Siberians, according to the scientist, are genetically identical to the Old Believers - they have the same “Russian genome.”

Researchers also pay attention to the slight difference in genotype between Russians on the one hand and neighboring Slavic peoples - Ukrainians, Belarusians and Poles - on the other. The difference between the southern and western Slavs and the inhabitants of the Russian north is more pronounced.

Special markers

According to anthropologist Vasily Deryabin, the Russian genotype also has its own clear physiological markers. One of them is the predominance of light shades of eyes among Russians: gray, blue, gray-blue, blue. We have 45 percent of them, in Western Europe there are fewer – about 35 percent. There are many Russians and fair-haired people. According to anthropologists, there are no more than 5 percent of Russians with natural black hair. In Western Europe, the chance of meeting a black-haired person is 45%.

Contrary to popular belief, there are not many snub noses among Russians - about 7%, in about 75% of cases the nose is straight. Also, among Russians there is no epicanthus - a fold typical of representatives of Mongoloid peoples at the inner corner of the eye.

The Russian ethnic group is characterized by a predominance of blood groups I and II; among Jews, for example, group IV is more common. Biochemical studies have also shown that in the blood of Russians, as well as other European peoples, there is a special RN-c gene, but it is absent in the Mongoloids.

Northerners are closer

Research Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Anthropology named after. D.N. Anuchin of Moscow State University conducted an in-depth study of the gene pool of the Russian people, during which they established a difference in the genotype between the Russians and our northern neighbors the Finns - it amounted to thirty conventional units. But the genetic differences between the Russian ethnic group and the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Vepsians, Karelians, Komi-Zyrians, Izhorians), who traditionally lived in the north of our country, correspond to only three units.

Scientists talk not just about the genetic unity of Russians with the Finno-Ugrians, but about their common origin. Moreover, the specific structure of the Y chromosomes of these ethnic groups is in many ways identical to the peoples of Hindustan. But this is not surprising, given the direction of settlement of the genetic ancestors of the Russian people.

Genetics of Germans, Lithuanians, Russians, Swedes, Finns, etc.

Genetics of Russian Ukrainians and Belarusians

This graph depicts all Slavs, including the western ones - Poles and Czechs, as well as the southern ones - Serbs, Bulgarians, Macedonians, etc.
All Slavs have 2 main components. These are Eastern European and Atlantic-Mediterranean. The first is at its maximum among Belarusians, and the second among all southern Slavs - Serbs, Macedonians, Bulgarians. The Eastern European component is more primary in origin among the Slavs, while the Atlantic-Mediterranean component is largely acquired as the Slavs migrated to the Balkans. Western Ukrainians and Slovaks have a slight increase in the Samoyed component relative to the neighboring Slavic peoples - Belarusians, Czechs, Poles; This is probably a genetic trace of the medieval migrations of the Huns and Ugrians to Central Europe.

Genetics of Slavs, Russians and Tatars, Germans, Caucasians, Jews, etc.

Genetics of Finns, Ugrians, Udmurts, Hungarians, Sami, etc.

Genetics of Tatars, Bashkirs, Azerbaijanis, Chuvashs, etc.

Conclusion

Geography of genetic components

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. Let me clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.
In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain areas of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations through the male gender. It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genera. There are only about 1000 loci on the Y chromosome, but only a little more than a hundred are used for comparative analysis of haplotypes and reconstruction of genera.
In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, big picture which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus on the general tree it will be seen that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for a group of haplotypes.

The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just marks of a long time ago days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern nations.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

Particularly noteworthy are the 4 most common haplogroups among Russians:
R1a1 47.0%, N1c1 20.0%, I2 10.6%, I1 6.2%
Speaking in simple words: genetic composition Russians along the direct male lines of the Y chromosome looks like this:
Eastern Europeans - 47%
Baltic - 20%
And two haplogroups of original Europeans since the Paleolithic
Scandinavians - 6%
Balkans - 11%

The names are arbitrary and given in accordance with territorial maximums European subclades for haplogroups R1a1, N1c1, I1 and I2. The fundamental point is that there are no descendants of the Mongols left after the two-hundred-year Tatar-Mongol yoke. Or there remains, but a very small number of direct genetic heirs from such connections. With these words I do not want to doubt historical sources about the Mongols in Rus', but just pay attention to the supposed genetic influence of the Mongol-Tatars on the Russians - there is none, or it is insignificant. By the way, the genome of the Bulgarian Tatars also contains a large number of carriers gaprogroup R1a1(about 30%) and N1c1(about 20%), but they are mostly not of European origin.

Another important point is that southern Russians, within the margin of error, do not differ from Ukrainians, and northern Russians, having the same haplogroup R1a1 as one of the predominant ones, also have more high percent haplogroup N1c1. But the % N1c1 haplotypes are on average 20% among Russians.

Emperors. Nikolay 2
The first known ancestor of the Grand Ducal House of Oldenburg was Egilmar, Count of Lerigau (d. 1108), mentioned in the chronicles of 1091.
Nicholas II turned out to be a carrier of the haplogroup R1b1a2- a representative of the Western European line, from the Holstein-Gottorp dynasty. This German dynasty is characterized by the terminal snip U106, which is most widespread in northwestern Europe in the places of settlement of Germanic tribes. This is not quite typical for Russian people DNA marker, but its presence among Russians could also be associated with early contacts between Germans and Slavs.

Natural princes. Rurikovich
Vladimir Monomakh and his descendants, called “Monomashichs,” belong to the haplogroup N1c1-L550, which is widespread in the South Baltic region (subclade L1025) and in Fennoscandia (subclades Y7795, Y9454, Y17113, Y17415, Y4338). The Rurik dynasty is characterized by the terminal snip Y10931.
Some of those whom historians call Olgovichi (named in honor of Oleg Svyatoslavich - the main rival of Vladimir Monomakh in the feudal struggle - and, as all sources assure, his cousin) are not related to the Rurikovichs from the Monomashich clan (in the direct male line). These are the descendants of Yuri Tarussky

Russians, Slavs, Indo-Europeans and haplogroups R1a, R1b, N1c, I1 and I2

Slavic languages ​​emerged from the once unified group of Balto-Slavic languages ​​(presumably the archaeological culture of the Late Corded Ware). According to the calculations of linguist Starostin, this happened approximately 3.3 thousand years ago. Period from the 5th century BC to IV-V century AD can be considered conditionally Proto-Slavic, because The Balts and Slavs had already separated, but the Slavs themselves did not yet exist; they would appear a little later, in the 4th-6th centuries AD. At the initial stage of the formation of the Slavs, probably about 80% were haplogroups R1a-Z280 and I2a-M423. At the initial stage of the formation of the Balts, probably about 80% were haplogroups N1c-L1025 and R1a-Z92. The influence and intersection of migrations of the Balts and Slavs was present from the very beginning, therefore in many ways this division is arbitrary, and in general reflects only the main trend, without details.

Iranian languages ​​belong to the Indo-European languages, and their dating is as follows - the most ancient, from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 4th century BC, middle - from the 4th century BC. to the 9th century AD, and the new one - from the 9th century AD. Until now. That is, the most ancient Iranian languages ​​appeared after the departure of some of the tribes who spoke Indo-European languages ​​from Central Asia to India and Iran. Their main haplogroups were probably R1a-Z93, J2a, G2a3. The Western Iranian group of languages ​​appeared later, around the 5th century BC.

Thus, the Indo-Aryans, Celts, Germans and Slavs in academic science became Indo-Europeans, this term is the most adequate for such a vast and diverse group. This is completely correct. In the genetic aspect, the heterogeneity of Indo-Europeans both in Y-haplogroups and autosomes is striking. Indo-Iranians are characterized to a greater extent by the Western Asian genetic influence of BMAC.

According to the Indian Vedas, it was the Indo-Aryans who came to India (South Asia) from the north (from Central Asia), and it was their hymns and tales that formed the basis of the Indian Vedas. And, continuing further, let’s touch on linguistics, because the Russian language (and related Baltic languages, for example, Lithuanian as part of the once existing Balto-Slavic linguistic community) is relatively close to Sanskrit along with the Celtic, Germanic and other languages ​​of the large Indo-European family . But genetically, the Indo-Aryans were already largely Western Asians; as they approached India, the Veddoid influence also intensified.

So it became clear that haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy - this is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (since naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups among them), part haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain they became part of the Finno-Ugric peoples, for example the Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes (for haplogroup R1a1 this is subclade Z93) during migrations they brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran approximately 3500 years ago, that is, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In India, through the works of the great Panini, it was transformed into Sanskrit in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and in Persia-Iran, the Aryan languages ​​became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. These data are confirmed: DNA genealogy and linguistics correlate here.

Extensive part haplogroups R1a1-Z93 in ancient times they merged with the Turkic ethnic groups and today largely mark the migrations of the Turks, which is not surprising in view of the antiquity haplogroup R1a1, while representatives haplogroup R1a1-Z280 belonged to the Finno-Ugric tribes, but when the Slavic colonists settled, many of them were assimilated by the Slavs, but even now, among many peoples, such as the Erzya, the dominant haplogroup is still R1a1-Z280.
Was able to provide us with all this new data DNA genealogy, in particular, approximate dates of migrations of haplogroup carriers in the territory of the modern Russian Plain and Central Asia in prehistoric times.
So scientists to all Slavs, Celts, Germans, etc. gave the name Indo-Europeans, which is true from a linguistic point of view.
Where did these Indo-Europeans come from? In fact, there were Indo-European languages ​​long before the migrations to India and Iran, throughout the Russian Plain and as far as the Balkans in the south, and as far as the Pyrenees in the west. Subsequently, the language was spread to South Asia - both to Iran and India. But in genetic terms there are much fewer correlations.
“The only justified and currently accepted in science is the use of the term “Aryans” only in relation to tribes and peoples who spoke Indo-Iranian languages.”

So in which direction did the Indo-European flow go - to the west, to Europe, or vice versa, to the east? According to some estimates of Indo-European language family about 8500 years old. The ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans has not yet been determined, but according to one version it could be the Black Sea region - southern or northern. In India, as we already know, the Indo-Aryan language was brought about 3500 years ago, presumably from the territory of Central Asia, and the Aryans themselves were a group with different genetic Y-lines, such as R1a1-L657, G2a, J2a, J2b, H, etc.

Haplogroup R1a1 in Western and Southern Europe

Disadvantage of the method
If you did the test and it made you very happy, then I hasten to add my ladle of tar. Yes, the Y chromosome is passed from father to son practically unchanged, but actually genetically useful information it doesn’t have it; there are many more genes in other pairs of chromosomes.
And these other 22 are shuffled very randomly, with no traces of such shuffling left on Y.
Imagine. Anglo-Saxon sailors captured the Negro state. Women are not taken on such trips, and you have to establish contact with local population. What are the possible options?
1) Anglo-Saxons have children from black women, but they pass on their nationality only to boys. In this case, the Y chromosome will be passed on as European, but the proportion of actually significant European genes will decrease. The first generation will be half black and the former “aristocracy” in such a case will quickly dissolve, although Y will be from this ethnic group. It will just be of little use. Perhaps something similar happened to the Finns and Indians. The Yakuts and Finns have the highest percentage of the N1c1 haplogroup characteristic of them, but genetically these are completely different peoples with different subclades of the N1c1 haplogroup with their own unique history, separated more than 6 thousand years ago. And vice versa, Indians - having a high percentage haplogroup R1a1 genetically they have very little in common with the European representatives of this haplogroup, because also different subclades with their own history, separated more than 6 thousand years ago.
2) Indo-Aryans are satisfied caste system. The first generation will also be half-Negro, but then, if the aristocracy only interbreeds with each other, then the percentage of the original genetics will float around 50%. But in practice, marriages will be mainly with local women, and it will be even more impossible to obtain the original gene pool of the conquerors. And something similar happened in the history of the Earth. The upper castes of Hindus from 20% to 72% have haplogroup R1a1(on average 43%), but genetically they have very little in common with European or Turkic representatives of the same haplogroup R1a1, and again the reason is different subclades with their own special history.
A similar situation probably occurred in Cameroon, a Central African country where Y is prevalent up to 95%. haplogroup R1b-V88, but among the anthropologically typical African Negroid population.
It can be concluded that the presence of a marker and haplogroup is an important condition to determine nationality, but not sufficient. To determine the national-territorial origin of a person, Family Tree DNA has an autosomal test called Family Finder

Alexey Zorrin