RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14th-16th CENTURIES
INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOL ISIS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings temporarily ceased.

The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works perished, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural and general cultural achievements.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow and Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and manuscript books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of unifying lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle from the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first code of an all-Russian character since the times of Ancient Rus'; the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is substantiated here.

• In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

• The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lament it is written “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”(only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A whole series of hagiographies are dedicated to princes who died in the horde. This Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

• From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as state center Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation.

• A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

• In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. . The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. General political thought Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions on all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century version attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

• Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became literary monument era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

• At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

• The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque coloring is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God, who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at a table appeared in Byzantium in the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - “hospitality”) of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, Saint Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as three hypostases of God. The middle Angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right Angel - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis for this interpretation of the icon is in the clothing and arrangement of the Angels), however, the identical appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels stands a cup - a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for our sins.

At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

• Under Dmitry Donskoy, the white stone Kremlin was built for the first time.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

• The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, its own architectural style appears.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke dealt a unique blow to the development of Russian culture. Decline is observed in various spheres of culture.

Destroyed:

Monuments of Russian architecture;

Writing;

Masonry construction ceased;

Some types of crafts have disappeared.

From the second halfThe 14th century began the gradual rise of Russian culture. The leading theme in culture was the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the fight against foreign yoke.

For the epic epic characteristically refers to the era of independence. Formed new genre oral folk art - historical ical song. The advent of paper made it accessible books.

Particular influence on the development of Russian literature provided Battle of Kulikovo. Works dedicated to the Battle of Kulikovo: “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre” - were very popular in Rus'.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the first all-Russian chronicle appeared - Trinity Chronicle.

The Moscow princes paid great attention to the compilation of chronicles, which contributed to the unification of the lands.

In the middle of the 15th century, a World History was compiled with brief information on the history of Rus' -Russian chronograph.

Result: Many works of art appear in Rus', talented masters from other countries move here to live and create.

In the XIV-XV centuries great development received painting.

Masters of painting:

Feofan the Greek(worked in Novgorod, Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and others).

Andrey Rublev(worked in Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, frescoes and icons of the Trinity Cathedral, famous icon "Trinity").

Result: The style of painting of two talented masters had a strong influence on subsequent generations of Russian artists.

Stone architecture revived very slowly. The traditions of regional architectural schools continued to develop. White stone walls were erected in 13 67 Kremlin, later red is used; ny brick.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery in Zvenigorod, the Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Cathedral of the Andronnikov Monastery in Moscow were built.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was created.

Russian culture at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th is developing under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence.

The official ideology of the Russian state is being developed. At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea was put forward "Moscow- Third Rome".The essence of the theory:

Rome - an eternally existing kingdom - moves from one country to another;

Rome perished - the second Rome appeared - Byzantium;

Byzantium died - it was replaced Moscow(Third Rome);

There will be no Fourth Rome.

IN "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir" reflected political theory of the origin of the Russian state: Moscow-princes- direct descendants of the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The Church ideologically justifies the need to strengthen the centralized state. Church persecutes furiously heresies.

One of the most widespread genres of oral folk art has become historical song:

- the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the boyars was glorified;

Ermak's campaign in Siberia;
-capture of Kazan;

The literature of that time is characterized journalism in the form of messages and letters.

The biggest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence of printing.

In 1553, the publication of books began in Moscow.
1564 Ivan Fedorov And Peter Mstislavets(published the first printed book "Apostle")

In the second half of the 16th century, about 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

A major event in architectural construction was the construction of a new Kremlin. Italian architect Fioravanti(Assumption Cathedral);

During this period, kremlins were built in other cities: Novgorod, Tula,Kolomna.

Church in the village Kolomenskoye was built with elements of wooden architecture;

In 1560, Russian architects Barma And Faster completed the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (blinded). The tent style appeared in church construction.

Painting represented by church paintings and iconography. The most outstanding master was Dionysius.

The most famous works:

Icon of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin;

Painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery;

End periodXV-The 16th century is characterized by the accumulation 1 theoretical and practical knowledge in mathematics and mechanics.

The traveler Afanasy Nikitin collected valuable geographical information - "Walking beyond the three seas."

Maps of the territory of the Russian state appear. Foundry begins to develop:

The State Cannon Yard began to operate;

Master Andrey Chokhov cast Tsar Cannon(weight 40 tons).

Bottom line. The creation of a centralized state, a fierce fight against heresies and free thought led to strict state control over all forms of art

The Tatar-Mongol invasion dealt a terrible blow to the development of Russian culture. This was reflected in the fact that the development of stone architecture stopped for a while, and some crafts disappeared. The entire XIII century. characterized by stagnation in Russian culture.

From the beginning of the 14th century. a new one has emerged rise of culture in Russian lands, which lasted during the XIV-XV centuries. In almost all large cities, such as Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Rostov, Pskov, Nizhny Novgorod and others, monastery schools and colleges were expanded and restored; in the monasteries the correspondence of old books continued and the creation of new books, of which there were more and more.

Novgorod birch bark documents that have survived to this day indicate the presence high literacy rate among the urban population. In oral folk art, there was a noticeable spread of epics that belonged to an earlier historical period. Along with them, new legends appeared (for example, “The Tale of the City of Kitezh”). In the XIV century. expensive parchment began to be replaced by paper, and more fluent and free writing - semi-ustav - came into use.

New chronicles are being created. The first all-Russian chronicle collection is the “Trinity Chronicle”, created in Moscow in 1408 (it was lost in the Moscow fire of 1812). The creation of the Moscow chronicle code dates back to 1480. In 1442, the first Russian Chronograph appeared, compiled by Pachomius Lagofet, which uniquely examined world history, including the history of Rus'.

One of the most common literary genres was historical stories: “About the Battle of Kalka”, “About the destruction of Ryazan by Batu”, “About Mamaev’s massacre”, “Zadonshchina”. An outstanding monument of Russian culture of the 15th century. appeared “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (observations about India and other countries lying between India and Russia). Valuable geographical descriptions of other territories are presented in the “walks” of the Novgorodian Stefan and the Smolensk Ignatius to Constantinople.

Church (“hagiography”) literature also became widespread: “The Life of Dmitry Donskoy”; “The Life of Stephen of Perm” by Epiphanius the Wise, “Praise of Sergius’ Virtue”, “The Life of Metropolitan Peter” by the same author.

Resumes active stone construction. Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white stone Kremlin was built in Moscow in the 15th century. - brick Kremlin with the help of Italian craftsmen. In the 15th century The Assumption Cathedral (architect - Aristotle Feoravanti), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the Moscow princes), the Annunciation Cathedral (by Pskov craftsmen), and the Chamber of Faceted Stones are being built.

Russian painting XIV-XV centuries. rose to a new, higher stage of its development. In Novgorod, during the painting of the Volotovo Church, and later in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. the outstanding artist Theophanes the Greek worked. Together with Simeon Cherny, he painted the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary and participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The largest Russian artist of the late XIV - early XV centuries. was Andrei Rublev. Together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the Annunciation Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Rublev created the famous work "Trinity". Rublev’s work is characterized by a departure from the church canons of painting; his works are striking in their emotionality.

Russian has reached great development applied arts. Outstanding examples of jewelry, wood and stone carvings, wooden sculpture, and silk embroidery have been preserved. The rise of Russian culture reflected the development of the Great Russian people.

In the 16th century, Russian culture developed under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence. Regional differences are increasingly being overcome and all-Russian trends are coming to the fore.

Literature XVI century was distinguished by her journalisticism. This was explained by the struggle in society between the boyars and the progressive nobility. One of the most prominent publicists of the 16th century. - Ivan Peresvetov. He came up with reform projects aimed at creating a strong autocratic government. Another author, Ermolai-Erasmus, spoke out against the excessive strengthening of serfdom. It should be noted that the bright, talented publicists A. Kurbsky and Ivan the Terrible - in the polemic that Andrei Kurbsky opened with his message to Ivan after fleeing to Lithuania in 1564, express an archaic position: an attitude towards the state as a divine creation. True, they draw the opposite conclusions from this. Ivan - about the right to autocracy, Kurbsky - about the duty of the sovereign to take care of his subjects.

From the middle of the 16th century. Russian begins its history typography. Book publishing in Moscow began back in 1553. So-called anonymous publications were published. In 1563, Ivan Fedorov began work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first publications in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. In total, in the second half of the 16th century. About 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

High level reaches during this period architecture. In the first half of the 16th century. In Russia there is an intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses. The originality of Russian architecture is associated with the appearance in the 16th century. tent style: the roof of the temple was made in the shape of a multifaceted pyramid - a tent. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square (St. Basil's Cathedral) are outstanding monuments of this style. Painting in the 16th century. represented, as in the previous period, by painting of churches and iconography. Dionysius is called the continuer of Rublev’s traditions in icon painting. His works are distinguished by exquisite, sophisticated colors and designs. His most famous works are the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery (near Vologda).

Foundry has developed greatly in Russia. In the 80s of the 15th century. A state cannon yard began to operate in Moscow. At the end of the 16th century. The guns were made by master Andrei Chokhov. In 1586, he cast the famous Tsar Cannon, weighing 40 tons, 5 m long and 890 mm in diameter, which is a true work of art.

Second half of the 16th century. turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. In the disasters of the end of the century, many cultural processes go deep and reassert themselves only in the next century. The fall of Byzantium and the weakening of cultural ties with the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe also played a negative role. But the main reason is the creation of a centralized Russian state, which required the mobilization of all spiritual forces and material resources, which caused increased social tension in society, a fierce struggle against heresies and freethinking, and strict state control over all forms of art.

Option 1

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. The destruction of cities, the loss of traditions, the disappearance of artistic movements, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, and architecture - a blow from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century. In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. reflected the mood of the era - a time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.
The memory of a prosperous and happy country, which remains in the consciousness of society Kievan Rus(“lightly bright and beautifully decorated” - words from “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, no later than 1246), was preserved primarily by literature. Chronicle writing remained its most important genre; it was revived in all lands and principalities of Rus'. At the beginning of the 15th century. In Moscow, the first all-Russian chronicle was compiled - an important evidence of progress in the unification of the country. With the completion of this process, chronicle writing, subordinated to the idea of ​​substantiating the power of the Moscow prince and then the tsar, acquired an official character. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (70s of the 16th century), an illustrated “Facebook Chronicle” was compiled in 12 volumes, containing more than one and a half ten thousand miniatures. In the XIV-XV centuries. The favorite theme of oral folk art is the struggle of Rus' with the “infidels.” A genre of historical song is emerging (“Song about Shchelkan”, about the Battle of Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about Evpatiy Kolovrat, etc.). The most important events of the 16th century were also reflected in historical songs. - Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible, oprichnina, image of the Terrible Tsar. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo 1380 gave birth to a cycle historical stories, from which stand out “The Tale of Mamaev's massacre"and the inspired "Zadonshchina" (its author Sophony Ryazanets used images and excerpts from "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"). Lives of saints were created in the 16th century. they are combined into a 12-volume set of “Great Chetiy-Menya”. In the 15th century The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (“Walking across Three Seas”) describes his journey to India and Persia. “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” remains a unique literary monument - the love story of the Murom prince and his wife, probably described by Ermolai-Erasmus in the middle of the 16th century. “Domostroy”, written by Ivan the Terrible’s confessor Sichvester, is remarkable in its own way - a book about housekeeping, raising and educating children, and the role of women in the family.
At the end of the XV-XVI centuries. literature is enriched with brilliant journalistic works. The Josephites (followers of the abbot of the Volotsk monastery Joseph, who defend the principle of non-interference of the state in the affairs of a rich and materially strong church) and non-acquisitors (Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeev, Maxim the Greek, who condemn the church for wealth and luxury, for craving for worldly pleasures) argue fiercely. In 1564-1577 Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky exchange angry messages. “...Tsars and rulers who make cruel laws perish,” Kurbsky inspires the king and hears in response: “Is this really light - when priests and crafty slaves rule, while the king is a king only in name and honor, and not at all with power?” no better than a slave? The idea of ​​the “autocracy” of the tsar, the divinity of his power, acquires almost hypnotic power in Ivan the Terrible’s messages. Differently, but just as consistently, Ivan Peresvetov writes about the special calling of the autocratic tsar in “The Great Petition” (1549): when punishing boyars who have forgotten about their duty to society, the righteous monarch must rely on the devoted nobility. The meaning of the official ideology is the idea of ​​Moscow as the “third Rome”: “Two Romes (“the second Rome” - Constantinople, devastated in 1453 - Author) have fallen, the third stands, the fourth will not exist” (Philofey).

Let us note that in 1564 in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published the first Russian printed book - “The Apostle”.

In the architecture of the XIV-XVI centuries. trends historical development Rus'-Russia was reflected with particular clarity. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. Stone construction is being resumed in Novgorod and Pskov, which suffered less than others from the Ordish yoke. In the XIV century. A new type of temple appears in Novgorod - light, elegant, bright (Spas on Ilyin). But half a century passes, and tradition wins: harsh, heavy structures reminiscent of the past are being erected again. Politics imperiously invades art, demanding that it be the guardian of independence, which the unifier Moscow is so successfully fighting. It accumulates the signs of a capital city of a single state gradually but consistently. In 1367 The white stone Kremlin was erected at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. New red brick walls and towers are being erected. They are built by masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy, and Mark Ruffo, imported from Italy. By that time, on the territory of the Kremlin, the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti had already erected the Assumption Cathedral (1479), an outstanding architectural monument in which an experienced eye will see both traditional features of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and elements of the construction art of the Renaissance. Next to another work of Italian masters - the Chamber of Facets (1487-1489) - Pskov masters are building the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489). A little later, the same Aleviz the New completes the magnificent ensemble of Cathedral Square with the Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Grand Dukes (1505-1509). Behind the Kremlin wall on Red Square in 1555-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, the nine-domed Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected, topped with a high multifaceted pyramid - a tent. This detail gave it the name “tent” architectural style, which arose in the 16th century. (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). The zealots of antiquity fight against “outrageous innovations,” but their victory is relative: at the end of the century, the desire for splendor and beauty is revived. Painting of the second half of the XIV-XV centuries is the golden age of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The paintings of the Novgorod (Savior on Ilyin) and Moscow (Annunciation Cathedral) churches of Theophanes the Greek and the icons of Rublev (“Trinity”, “Savior”, etc.) are addressed to God, but tell about man, his soul, about the search for harmony and ideal. Painting, while remaining deeply religious in themes, images, genres (wall paintings, icons), acquires unexpected humanity, gentleness, and philosophy.

Option 2

Culture and spiritual life of Rus' in the 14th-16th centuries.

By the 14th century, in conditions of fragmentation and the influence of neighboring peoples, features developed in the language, customs, and culture of the peoples of different parts of Rus'. The 14th-16th centuries were associated with the struggle against the Horde yoke and the formation of a Russian centralized state around Moscow. Literature presented historical songs, where the victory on the “Kulikovo Field” and the heroism of Russian soldiers were glorified. In “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” he talks about the victory over the Mongol-Tatars. Afanasy Nikitin, who visited India, left his notes “Walking across Three Seas,” where he talks about the customs and beauties of this region. An outstanding event in Russian culture was book printing. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov published the first printed book in Russia, “The Apostle,” and later “The Primer.” In the 16th century, an encyclopedia of patriarchal conditions is created family life. Painting increasingly began to move away from church channels. Theophanes the Greek in the 14th century. painted the churches of Novgorod and Moscow. Andrei Rublev, known for Trinity, worked with him. Dianisy painted the Vologda Cathedral near Vologda and others. It is characterized by: brightness, festivity, sophistication. The development of architecture is associated with large-scale construction in Moscow, where the walls of the Kremlin, the Arkhangelsk Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Ivan the Great Bell Tower were erected. Crafts, especially foundry, reached a high level. Andrei Chokhov created the Tsar Cannon, which weighs 40 tons and its caliber is 89 cm. In the culture of the 14th-16th centuries. More and more secular elements are appearing, a kind of return and revival of Russian culture is taking place.

Option 3

The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the development of culture 1 A heavy blow was dealt to material and cultural values2 The increased disunity of Russian lands had a negative impact on the development of all-Russian cultural processes Chronicle begins to recover from the second half of the 13th century

1 Main centers - Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov, Ryazan, new centers - Moscow, Tver

2 The leading place is gradually occupied by Moscow chronicles, with their ideas of unifying lands around Moscow.3 Trinity Chronicle (Moscow chronicle traditions) 4 Mid-15th century, the appearance of the first brief world history– chronograph Oral folk art of Rus' 1 The epics, songs, and military stories reflect the Russian people’s idea of ​​their past and the strengthened world 2 The first cycle of epics is a revision and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kiev state 3 The second cycle is Novgorod A. The wealth and power of the free city are glorified B. The courage of the townspeople S. Main character - Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich

4 Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest A. Tales related to heroic battles or the devastation of cities b. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles Literature of Rus' 1 The works contain ideas of national liberation and patriotism2 A number of works are dedicated to the princes who died in the Golden Horde3 The military story Zadonshchina, compiled by Saphonius of Ryazansky in the image of The Lay of Igor's Regiment A. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo B. Does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings C. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original4 Written: Voyage beyond the three seas A. Travel diary - impressions from the journey of Afanasy NikitinB. One of the few works preserved in Rus' The beginning of book printing in Rus' 1 By the 15th century, the formation of the Great Russian nationality was completed 2 The Moscow dialect became dominant

3 Formation of a centralized state and an increase in the need for literate people

4 Metropolitan Macarius, with the support of Ivan 4, initiated book printing 5 1563 - the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov First publication - the book Apostle 6 1574 the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov 7 The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church General political thought of Rus' in the 16th century

1 Reflected several trends on the issue of the relationship between government and individual segments of the population

2 Ivan Peresvetov expresses the noble program of action A. He showed that the support of the state is service people (and their position should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit

B. The main vices leading to the death of the state are the dominance of nobles, their improper trial and indifference to the affairs of the state C. The theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is becoming more active D. He called for pushing the boyars out of the occupation and attracting those people who were really interested in military service 3 Prince Kurbsky defended the point of view that the best people Russia should help her A. A streak of persecution of boyars, which coincided with a streak of failures in Rus' B. Kurbsky leaves the country, Ivan 4 takes it hard C. Ivan 4 equates Kurbsky’s departure to high treason Domostroy

1 It is necessary to raise the prestige of the new state - official literature, which regulates the spiritual, legal, everyday life of people 2 Domostroy - the norm of religious and ethical behavior in everyday life A. Compiled by Sylvester B. Legal education of children, advice on housekeeping C. Artistic language - became a literary monument of the era Painting of Rus'

1 Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries (Russian Renaissance) 2 Series of painters: Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, icon painter Dionysus

3 The Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning at the same time Architecture of Rus'

1 In the 14th-16th centuries Moscow was decorated 2 Restoration of old Russian churches 3 Tendencies towards the crystallization of the Russian national style based on the synthesis of the architecture of Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal land

4 Sofia Paleolog invites craftsmen from Italy. The goal is to display the power and glory of the Russian state

5 Traditions of the Russian tent style appear

No. 11. Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

XVI century - the time of Ivan IV the Terrible, who ruled for 51 years, longer than any Russian sovereign. Ivan the Terrible, at the age of three, lived without his father (Vasily III). His mother Elena Glinskaya ruled for him, but she was poisoned when her son was 8 years old. Ivan IV grew up in an atmosphere of fierce struggle for power among boyar groups, palace intrigues, and saw scenes of civil strife and reprisals, which made him a suspicious, cruel, unbridled and despotic person. Metropolitan Macarius played a major role in establishing order in the country, who crowned in 1547. 17-year-old Ivan IV to the kingdom. Ivan IV became the first Tsar of the Russian state. In the same year he married Anastasia Romanova. Autocratic monarchy's human face" - began to be implemented under Ivan IV during the reign of the Elected Rada. The government headed by A. Adashev and Sylvester went down in history under the name of the Elected Rada. During the ten years of its stay in power, the Elected Rada carried out as many reforms as no other decade in the history of medieval Russia. IN 1550 The Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code of Laws - a set of laws. The laws in it were much better systematized than in the Code of Laws of 1497. In the new Code of Laws, punishments were first established for bribe-takers from clerks to boyars. Ivan IV century carried out military reform. According to the “Code on Military Service”, the difference between the boyars - patrimonial owners and the nobles - landowners was finally eliminated - both of them were obliged to perform the sovereign's service. Church reform was also carried out. In 1551, a church council was held, which adopted a special document “stoglav” (consisting of 100 chapters). It unified church rituals in all Russian lands and introduced a single all-Russian pantheon of saints. The reforms of the Elected Rada were of a gradual compromise nature. They contributed to the centralization of the state, overcoming the remnants of feudal fragmentation. A continuation of the internal policy of the Elected Rada was the foreign policy of the Russian state, the task of which was to eliminate the consequences of the Horde yoke. IN 1552 Russian troops stormed the capital of the Kazan Khanate - Kazan. The Khanate was annexed to Russia. But the greatest danger to Rus' was the Crimean Khanate. While this aggressive state existed, Rus' could not safely move south and populate the fertile southern lands. IN 1558 The Livonian War begins. The beginning of the Livonian War was successful for Russia. After the first victories, the Livonian Order was defeated. The Russian army captured a number of cities on the Baltic coast. But by “turning towards the Germans,” Ivan IV, in fact, gave the Tatars the opportunity to attack Moscow. Moscow was burned. Soon Russia began to suffer military defeats in the West, in the Baltic states. Thus, Russia has ceased to be one of the centers of world trade and European politics. They stopped taking her into account. They stopped fearing and respecting her. It began to turn into a third-rate power. This transformation also occurred due to the economic catastrophe of the second half of the 16th century, which was associated, first of all, with the transition from a policy of reform to a policy of harsh violence, despotism, and to a policy of oprichnina. In December, Tsar Ivan, having gone on a pilgrimage, remained in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda and at the beginning 1565 g. informed Metropolitan Athanasius and the Duma that he was renouncing the kingdom. Reasons: discord with the nobility, boyars. In another message to the townspeople and townspeople, Ivan IV wrote that he held no grudge against them. By announcing the disgrace of the nobility, the tsar seemed to appeal to the people in his dispute with the boyars. Under pressure from the people, the Boyar Duma not only did not accept Ivan the Terrible’s abdication, but was forced to turn to him with a loyal petition. In response, Ivan IV, under the pretext of allegedly uncovering a conspiracy, demanded that the boyars grant him unlimited power and establish an oprichnina in the state. Oprichnina was the so-called “widow's share.” If a nobleman died, his estate was taken into the treasury, leaving a small plot so that the widow and children would not starve. Ivan IV hypocritically demanded that his “widow's share” be allocated to him. The land in the state was divided into two parts: zemshchina and oprichnina. The Zemshchina was still governed jointly with the Boyar Duma. And the oprichnina became the personal property of the tsar. The oprichnina included the lands of the central regions of Russia, the most economically developed, where the estates of the most ancient boyar families were located. The tsar took away these estates and in return provided new ones in the Volga region, on the lands of the conquered Kazan and Astrakhan khans. The meaning of this measure was that the boyars lost the support of the population, which was accustomed to seeing them as their masters. Ivan IV distributed the lands in the oprichnina to his service people for their service. Oprichnina was the first embodiment of autocracy in Russian history as a system of unlimited tsarist rule. However, judgments about it are difficult due to the scarcity of sources and the destruction of all oprichnina archives. IN 1571 g. As a result of oprichnina terror, the country was on the verge of ruin. in autumn 1572 g. The sovereign “dismissed” the oprichnina. Oprichnina also contributed to the establishment of serfdom in Russia. The first enslavement decrees of the early 1580s, which prohibited peasants from legally changing ownership, were provoked by the economic ruin caused by the oprichnina. The terrorist, repressive dictatorship made it possible to drive the peasants into the yoke of serfdom. Serfdom preserved feudalism, restrained the development of market relations in our country and, thereby, became a brake on the path of social progress.

No. 12. Time of Troubles: civil war in modern times. 17th century, its consequences. Zemsky Sobor 1613

At first XVII century Russia was shocked by the events that contemporaries called the Troubles, the Time of Troubles. In terms of the depth and scale of the upheavals, the turmoil can rightfully be called a national crisis. The origins of the Troubles are in the era of Ivan the Terrible, those contradictions that arose and were not resolved in the 16th century. In the region, the economic cause of the Troubles was the economic crisis caused by the Livonian War and the oprichnina. Another event greatly influenced the course of the Troubles, acting both as an occasion and as a cause of the Troubles, death in 1598 g. Fyodor Ioanovich, who left no heir. The suppression of a dynasty in a feudal, traditional in nature, society is always fraught with political upheavals. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Russian state stood at a crossroads. Under his weak-willed heir, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), the fate of the throne and the country was in the hands of warring boyar factions. A real threat was brewing civil war. Already in the first months of the new reign, various political groupings and trends clearly emerged. Representatives of the highest nobility - the Shuiskys, Mstislavskys, Vorotynskys and Bulgakovs, who, due to their birth, claimed the role of first advisers to the sudar, rallied into a special group, forgetting about their parochial and other contradictions. The antithesis of this princely group were the noble “courtyard” figures, interested in preserving their privileges, which they enjoyed during the life of Tsar Ivan. But neither one nor the other managed to achieve success. During the struggle, a third force emerged, led by Boris Godunov, which gained the upper hand. In February 1598 g., after the death of Tsar Fedor, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, which elected Boris as the new tsar. For the first time in Rus', a tsar appeared who received power not by inheritance, but by “the unanimous decision of the entire people.” Godunov was a supporter of strong autocratic power. He refused to pursue the oprichnina course, which was unpopular among the people, which could not lead the country out of the crisis. Godunov’s domestic policy was aimed at stabilizing the situation in the country and consolidating the entire ruling class. This was the only correct policy in the conditions of the general ruin of the country. Under him, cities developed intensively and new ones were built. At the very beginning of the new century, the country experienced the consequences of a general cooling in Europe. Rain and cold prevented the ripening of bread in the summer 1601 g. Early frosts further aggravated the plight of the village. Famine began in the country. People died on the streets and roads and ate others. Boris Godunov tried to fight hunger, but all his measures failed. The famine led to an explosion of class hatred. The aggravation of the internal political situation led to a sharp decline in Godunov’s authority both among the masses and among the feudal class. IN 1601 g. A young man appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of Ivan the Terrible, who declared his intention to go to Moscow to obtain the “ancestral throne” for himself. Boris Godunov, having learned about the appearance of the impostor, created a commission of inquiry to determine his identity. The commission announced that the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, had identified himself as the prince. Collected in the fall 1604 g. The army of False Dmitry I went to Moscow. At first, military operations were not in favor of the impostor. But residents of the southwestern cities came to the rescue: Putivl, Belgorod, Voronezh, Oskol, etc. They raised an anti-government uprising and recognized the impostor as their king. At this time in April 1605 Tsar Boris died, his 16-year-old son Fedor ascended the throne, unable to retain power in his hands. By order of the impostor, he was killed along with his mother, Queen Maria. As a result, June 20 1605 False Dmitry solemnly entered Moscow. The new tsar turned out to be an active and energetic ruler: he took the title of “emperor” and easily and quickly resolved complicated issues. Despite the desire to appear merciful and generous, the impostor failed to remain on the throne. 17 May 1606 An uprising broke out in Moscow, leading to the death of the self-proclaimed tsar. One of the organizers of the uprising was Prince Vasily Shuisky, who became a new contender for royal crown. The election of Shuisky as tsar was not a nationwide action. He ascended the throne on the crest of the Moscow uprising. Vasily Shuisky's rise to power caused discontent on the part of both the feudal lords and the peasantry. The main opponents of the tsar concentrated on the southwestern outskirts of the state, where the former “Tsar Dmitry” was honored. Ivan Bolotnikov stood at the head of this army. A peasant uprising began. Unlike the previous stage of the Troubles, which was characterized by a struggle for power at the top of the ruling class, this stage was distinguished by the involvement of the middle and lower strata of society in the confrontation. The Troubles took on the character of a civil war. All its signs were present: the violent resolution of all controversial issues, complete or almost complete oblivion of all legality and customs, acute social confrontation, destruction of the entire social structure of society, the struggle for power, etc. The situation in the country was difficult. In summer 1607 A new liar, Dmitry, appeared in Starodub in the Bryansk region. An army began to gather around the new impostor False Dmitry II. In summer 1608 g. The impostor's army approached Moscow and settled in Trushino. The Shuisky government took measures to overcome the Tushins. In August 1608, the Tsar’s nephew M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was sent to Novgorod to conclude an agreement on military assistance with Sweden. In February 1609 such an agreement was concluded. The conclusion of this treaty was a serious political mistake. Swedish assistance brought little benefit, but the entry of Swedish troops into Russian territory gave them the opportunity to subsequently capture Novgorod. In addition, this treaty gave the Polish king Sigismund a pretext for open intervention. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began military operations against Russia and besieged Smolensk. Meanwhile, government troops led by Syupin-Shuisky, together with a Swedish detachment, moved from Novgorod to liberate Moscow. Along the way, the siege of the Sergeev Monastery was lifted and March 12, 1610. Skopin-Shuisky entered Moscow as a winner. 17 July 1610 Mr. Vasily Shuisky was overthrown from the throne and became a monk. Power in the capital passed to the Boyar Duma, headed by seven prominent boyars. The situation in the old age remained extremely difficult . 21 September 1610 Moscow was occupied by Polish interventionist troops. A new government was formed headed by A. Gonsevsky and M. Saltykov. Gonsevsky began to control the country. He generously distributed lands to supporters of the interventionists, confiscating them from those who remained loyal to their country. The actions of the Poles caused general indignation; on November 30, 1610, Patriarch Hermogenes made a call to fight against the invaders, but he soon found himself in custody. The idea of ​​convening a national militia to liberate the country from interventionists gradually matured in the country. March 3, 1611. The militia army set out from Kolomna towards Moscow. The Poles brutally dealt with Muscovites - they burned the city and thus stopped the uprising. The situation in the country has become catastrophic. On June 3, 1611, Smolensk fell. 20 months withstood the attacks of Sigismund III. On July 16, Swedish troops captured Novgorod and besieged Pskov. In January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, extremely crowded and representative: elected representatives of the nobles, townspeople, clergy and black-growing peasants took part in it. After lengthy debates, the choice fell on 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Filaret - Filaret was Tsar Fedor’s cousin. His son Mikhail was Tsar Feodor's cousin. This preserved the principle of inheritance of the Russian throne. The country that Mikhail was to rule was in dire condition. Novgorod was in the hands of the Swedes, Smolensk in the Poles. In 1617 The Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Novgorod was returned to Russia, but the Baltic coast was given to Sweden. In December 1618 The Deulin Truce was concluded for 14 years. Smolensk and the Seversk cities were transferred to Poland. The situation in the country began to normalize. The time of troubles is over.

No. 13. New trends in political, economic, cultural development countries in the 17th century The first Romanovs.

The consequence of the Time of Troubles was severe economic devastation. Contemporaries called it “the great Moscow ruin.” It took several decades to restore the economy. The lengthy nature of the restoration of production forces in agriculture was explained by the low fertility of the land, weak resistance peasant farm natural conditions. The development of agriculture was predominantly extensive: a large number of new territories were involved in economic turnover. The colonization of the outskirts proceeded at a rapid pace: Siberia, the Volga region, and Bashkiria. Household industry became widespread: throughout the country, peasants produced canvas, homespun cloth, ropes and ropes, felted and leather shoes, clothing, dishes, etc. The development of various crafts contributed to the growth of handicrafts. The development of crafts and trade led to the growth of cities. By the middle of the 17th century. there were 254 of them. The most big city was Moscow. Further development The domestic market created the preconditions for the emergence of the first manufactories in Russia. Manufacturing production began in 1632. Work in factories was carried out mainly by hand; only some processes were mechanized using water engines. The development of commodity production, the growth of years and the introduction of manufactories lead to an increase in trade relations and the development of trade in the country. Sometimes artisans and peasants themselves went to the market to sell their goods. But if the market was far from their place of residence, this caused inconvenience, then intermediaries appeared - people who only bought and sold goods. This is how trade intermediaries appeared - merchants. The process of social and territorial division of labor led to economic specialization of regions. On this basis, regional markets began to emerge. Interregional connections cemented fairs of all-Russian significance. The expansion of trade relations and the growing role of commercial capital marked the beginning of a long process of the formation of an all-Russian market. This process contributed to the economic unification of the country. The development of commodity-money relations and the growth of domestic trade led to an increase in foreign trade. Features of the development of Russia in the 17th century. also affected the evolution of its political system. In the post-Trouble times, it was no longer possible to govern the country in the old way. During the Troubles, the tsarist government, when solving national problems, was forced to rely on class-representative structures - Zemsky Sobors and the Boyar Duma. From the second half of the 17th century. The country's political system evolved towards absolutism. The strengthening of autocracy was reflected in the title of the monarch. The new title highlighted two points: the idea of ​​the divine origin of power and its autocratic character. The strengthening of autocracy was expressed in a sharp increase in the number of registered decrees, that is, decrees adopted without the participation of the Duma, by the will of the tsar. Another evidence of the strengthening of autocracy was the significance of the Zemsky Sobors. Gradually, the role of the Boyar Duma also decreases. Along with it, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, there is the so-called “close” or “secret Duma,” an institution consisting of a narrow circle of people who previously discussed issues brought up at meetings of the Boyar Duma. Along with the Boyar Duma, the core of the political system of the state was the central administrative institutions - orders. By the end of the 17th century. the total number of orders exceeded 80, of which up to 40 were constantly functioning. Standing orders were divided into three groups: state, palace and patriarchal. The order system suffered from a number of shortcomings, which became increasingly significant over time. Changes in the organization of local government that took place in the second half of the 17th century. also reflected the tendency towards centralization and the conduct of elections. Power in the counties, which were the main territorial and administrative unit, was concentrated in the hands of the governor. There was also a tendency towards increased centralization in the organization of the armed forces. XVII century became a turning point in the development of Russian culture. A new phenomenon in the development of Russian culture in the 17th century. was her secularization. It was expressed in the dissemination of scientific knowledge and a departure from religious canons in literature. One of the manifestations of the secularization of culture was the increased attention to the human personality. This was reflected in socio-political thought and literature. Socio-political thought tried to comprehend the events of the beginning of the century and find out the causes of the upheavals. This was done in the form historical works about the Troubles. Plot historical the story of a journalistic nature actively replaced the traditional chronicle. The development of Russia increased interest in history and put on the agenda the issue of creating a work on the history of the Russian state. XVII century marked by wonderful everyday and satirical stories by unknown authors: “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune.” In the 17th century A new stage has begun in the development of the Russian language. The central regions, led by Moscow, played a leading role in it. The Moscow dialect became dominant, becoming a common Russian language. Development of city life, crafts, trade, manufactories, government. apparatus and connections with foreign countries contributed to the spread of literacy. In connection with the development of new territories and the expansion of ties with other countries, geographic knowledge was accumulated in Russia. Worldliness in architecture was expressed, first of all, in a departure from medieval severity and simplicity, in a desire for external picturesqueness, elegance, and decoration. In the second half of the 17th century. the beginning of 2 secular genres was laid: portrait painting and the landscape. Lively relations between Russia and the West in the 2nd half of the 17th century. contributed to the emergence of a court theater in Moscow. The first dramatic performance on its stage was the Russian comedy “Baba Yaga Bone Leg”. Development of culture in the 17th century. reflected the process of formation of the Russian nation. It is associated with the beginning of the destruction of medieval religious-feudal ideology and the establishment of “worldly” secular principles in the spirit. culture.

No. 14. Church schism and its consequences.

The growing Russian autocracy, especially in the era of absolutism, demanded the further subordination of the church to the state. By the middle of the 17th century. It turned out that in Russian liturgical books, which were copied from century to century, many clerical errors, distortions, and changes had accumulated. The same thing happened in church rituals. In Moscow there were two different opinions on the issue of correcting church books. Supporters of one, to which the government also adhered, considered it necessary to edit the books according to the Greek originals. They were opposed by "zealots of ancient piety." The circle of zealots was headed by Stefan Vonifatiev, the royal confessor. The work of carrying out church reform was entrusted to Nikon. Power-hungry, with a strong will and seething energy, the new patriarch soon dealt the first blow to “ancient piety.” By his decree, the correction of liturgical books began to be carried out according to Greek originals. Some rituals were also unified: two fingers during the sign of the cross were replaced by three fingers, the system changed church service etc. Initially, opposition to Nikon arose in the spiritual circles of the capital, mainly from the “zealots of piety.” Archpriests Avvakum and Daniel wrote objections to the king. Having failed to achieve their goal, they began to spread their views among the lower and middle strata of the rural and urban population. Church Council 1666-1667 declared a curse on all opponents of the reform, brought them before the court of the “city authorities,” who were supposed to be guided by the article of the Code of 1649, which provided for the burning at the stake of anyone “who blasphemes the Lord God.” In different places of the country, bonfires burned, on which the zealots of antiquity perished. After the council of 1666-1667. disputes between supporters and opponents of the reform gradually acquired a social connotation and put the beginning of the split in Russian Orthodox Church, the emergence of religious opposition (Old Belief or Old Believers). The Old Believers are a complex movement, both in terms of the composition of participants and in essence. The general slogan was a return to antiquity, a protest against all innovations. Sometimes social motives can be discerned in the actions of the Old Believers, who evaded the census and the fulfillment of duties in favor of the feudal state. An example of the development of a religious struggle into a social one is the Solovetsky Uprising of 1668-1676. The uprising began as a purely religious one. Local monks refused to accept the newly printed “Nikonian” books. The monastery council of 1674 passed a resolution: “to stand and fight against the government people” until death. Only with the help of a defector monk, who showed the besiegers a secret passage, did the archers manage to break into the monastery and break the resistance of the rebels. Of the 500 defenders of the monastery, only 50 remained alive. The crisis of the church was also manifested in the case of Patriarch Nikon. Carrying out the reform, Nikon defended the ideas of Caesaropapism, i.e. the superiority of spiritual power over secular power. As a result of Nikon's power-hungry habits, in 1658 a break occurred between the tsar and the patriarch. If the church reform carried out by the patriarch met the interests of the Russian autocracy, then Nikon’s theocratism clearly contradicted the trends of growing absolutism. When Nikon was informed of the tsar’s anger against him, he publicly resigned his rank in the Assumption Cathedral and left for the Resurrection Monastery. Popular uprisings Mid-century urban uprisings. In the middle of the 17th century. tax burden has increased. The treasury felt the need for money both for the maintenance of the expanding apparatus of power, and in connection with an active foreign policy (wars with Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the army seized the treasury.” The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt by 4 times in 1646. However, the tax increase for salt did not lead to replenishment of the treasury, since the solvency of the population was undermined. The salt tax was abolished in 1647. It was decided to collect arrears for three last year. The entire amount of the tax fell on the population of the “black” settlements, which caused discontent among the townspeople. In 1648 it resulted in an open uprising in Moscow. At the beginning of June 1648, Alexei Mikhailovich, returning from a pilgrimage, was presented with a petition from the Moscow population demanding to punish the most selfish representatives of the tsarist administration. However, the demands of the townspeople were not satisfied, and they began to destroy merchants' and boyars' houses. Several major dignitaries were killed. The tsar was forced to expel boyar B.I. Morozov, who headed the government, from Moscow. With the help of bribed archers, whose salaries were increased, the uprising was suppressed. The uprising in Moscow, called the “salt riot,” was not the only one. Over the course of twenty years (from 1630 to 1650), uprisings took place in 30 Russian cities: Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, and Siberian cities. Copper Riot 1662. Exhausting wars waged in the middle of the 17th century. Russia has depleted the treasury. The pestilence of 1654-1655 hit the country's economy painfully, claiming tens of thousands of lives. In search of a way out of the difficult financial situation, the Russian government began minting copper coins instead of silver coins at the same price (1654). Over the course of eight years, so much copper money (including counterfeit money) was issued that it became completely worthless. In the summer of 1662, for one silver ruble they gave eight copper ones. The government collected taxes in silver, while the population had to sell and buy products with copper money. Salaries were also paid in copper money. The high cost of bread and other products that arose under these conditions led to famine. Driven to despair, the Moscow people rose in rebellion. In the summer of 1662, several thousand Muscovites moved to the Tsar’s country residence, the village of Kolomenskoye. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich went out onto the porch of the Kolomna Palace and tried to calm the crowd, which demanded that the most hated boyars be handed over for execution. As a contemporary of the events writes, the rebels “beat the tsar on the hands” and “held him by the dress, by the buttons.” While negotiations were going on, boyar I.N., sent by the tsar. Khovansky secretly brought rifle regiments loyal to the government to Kolomenskoye. Entering the royal residence through the rear utility gate of Kolomenskoye, the archers brutally dealt with the rebels. More than 7 thousand Muscovites died. However, the government was forced to take measures to calm the masses; the minting of copper money was stopped, which was again replaced by silver. The uprising in Moscow in 1662 was one of the harbingers of a new peasant war. In 1667 under the leadership of S.T. Razin's golutvennye (poor) Cossacks, going on a campaign for zipuns, captured the Yaipky town (modern Uralsk) and made it their stronghold. In 1668-1669 they subjected a devastating raid to the Caspian coast from Derbent to Baku, defeating the fleet of the Iranian Shah. Rebellion 1670-1671 In the spring of 1670 S.T. Razin began a new campaign against the Volga. In the spring of 1670 S.T. Razin captured Tsaritsyn. In October 1670, the siege of Simbirsk was lifted, the 20,000-strong army of S.T. Razin was defeated, and the leader of the uprising himself, seriously wounded, was taken to the town of Kagalshsky. Wealthy Cossacks captured S.T. by deception. Razin and handed him over to the government. In the summer of 1671, S.T., who courageously held his ground during torture. Razin was executed on Red Square in Moscow. Individual detachments of rebels fought with the tsarist troops until the fall of 1671. In the fall of 1670, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich reviewed the noble militia, and a 30,000-strong army moved to suppress the uprising.

No. 15. Russia during the period of reforms of Peter I.

The active transformative activity of Peter I began immediately after his return from abroad. The beginning of the reforms of Peter I is usually considered to be the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. and at the end of 1725 those. year of the reformer's death. Peter's radical transformations were "a response to the comprehensive internal crisis, the crisis of traditionalism, that befell the Russian state in the second half of the 17th century." The reforms were supposed to ensure the progress of the country, eliminate its lag behind Western Europe, preserve and strengthen independence, and put an end to the “old Moscow traditional way of life.” Reforms covered many areas of life. Their sequence was determined, first of all, by the needs of the Northern War, which lasted more than twenty years (1700-1721). In particular, the war forced the urgent creation of a new combat-ready army and navy. In 1705, Peter I introduced recruitment from tax-paying classes (peasants, townspeople). Recruits were recruited one at a time from twenty households. Soldier's service was for life. Until 1725, 83 recruitments were carried out. They gave the army and navy 284 thousand. Recruit sets solved the problem of the rank and file. To solve the problem of the officer corps, a reform of the estates was carried out. Boyars and nobles united into a single service class. Each representative of the service class was required to serve from the age of 15. Only after passing the exam could a nobleman be promoted to officer. In 1722, by decree of the tsar, the so-called "Table of ranks." 14 military and equivalent civilian ranks were introduced. Each officer or official, having started his service from the lower ranks, depending on his diligence and intelligence, could move up the career ladder right up to the very top. Thus, a rather complex military-bureaucratic hierarchy emerged with the tsar at its head. All classes were in public service and bore responsibilities for the benefit of the state. As a result of the reforms of Peter I, the regular army, numbering 212 thousand people and a powerful fleet. The maintenance of the army and navy absorbed 2/3 of state income. The most important means of replenishing the treasury was taxes. Under Peter I, direct and indirect taxes were introduced (on oak coffins, for wearing Russian dress, on beards, etc.). In order to increase tax collection, tax reform was carried out. In 1718, a census of all tax-paying people, both state and landowner, was carried out. All of them were taxed. A passport system was introduced; without a passport, no one could leave their place of residence. The monetary reform was supposed to significantly increase treasury revenues. The reform was carried out gradually, starting from the 17th century. the old account for money and altyns was done away with; sums of money were calculated in rubles and kopecks. Income from monetary reform helped Russia win the Northern War without resorting to foreign loans. Constant wars (out of 36 years - 28 years of war), radical transformations sharply increased the burden on central and local authorities. Peter I reorganized the entire system of power and management. Peter stopped convening the Boyar Duma, and decided all the most important matters in the Nearest Chancellery. In 1711 the Governing Senate was created. The Senate was tasked with monitoring local government bodies and checking the compliance of the administration's actions with the laws issued by the tsar. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king. In 1718-1720 A collegiate reform was carried out, replacing the system of orders with new central bodies of sectoral management - collegiums. The boards were not subordinate to each other and extended their action to the entire country. The local government system was reorganized. In 1707, the tsar issued a decree, according to which the entire country was divided into provinces. The provinces were headed by governors appointed by the tsar. Governors had broad powers, exercised administrative and judicial powers, and controlled the collection of taxes. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by voivodes, and the provinces into districts, districts into divisions, which were abolished later. Reforms of central and local government were supplemented church reform. Peter in 1721 abolished the patriarchate. Instead, a board for church affairs was created - the Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were appointed by the Tsar from among the highest clergy; the Synod was headed by the Chief Prosecutor appointed by the Tsar. Thus, the church was finally subordinated to the state. This role of the church remained until 1917. The economic policy of Peter I was also aimed at strengthening the country's military power. Along with taxes, the most important source of funds for the maintenance of the army and navy was domestic and foreign trade. In foreign trade, Peter I consistently pursued a policy of mercantilism. Its essence: the export of goods should always exceed their import. To implement the policy of mercantilism, state control over trade was necessary. It was carried out by the Kammertz Collegium. An important component of Peter's reforms was the rapid development of industry. Under Peter I, industry, especially those industries that worked for defense, made a breakthrough in its development. New factories were built, the metallurgical and mining industries developed. The Urals became a major industrial center. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were over 200 manufactories in Russia, ten times more than before him. Particularly impressive were the transformations of Peter I in the fields of education, science and technology, culture and everyday life. The restructuring of the entire education system was due to the need to train a large number of qualified specialists, which the country urgently needed. In Peter's time, a Medical School was opened (1707), as well as engineering, shipbuilding, navigation, mining and craft schools. In 1724, a mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg. She trained specialists for the mining industry of the Urals. Secular education required new textbooks. In 1703, Arithmetic was published. “A Primer”, “Slavic Grammar” and other books appeared. The development of science and technology in Peter's time was primarily based on the practical needs of the state. Great success were achieved in geodesy, hydrography and cartography, in the study of subsoil and the search for minerals, in invention. The result of the achievements of Peter's time in the field of education and science was the creation of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. It was opened after the death of Peter I in 1725. During the reign of Peter I, Western European chronology was introduced (from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world, as before). Printing houses and a newspaper appeared. Libraries, a theater in Moscow and much more were established. Characteristic Russian culture under Peter I - its state character. Peter assessed culture, art, education, and science from the standpoint of benefits brought to the state. Therefore, the state financed and encouraged the development of those areas of culture that were considered most necessary.

No. 16. Foreign policy of Peter I.

Under Peter, serious changes took place in Russian foreign policy and, especially, in the practice of its implementation. As a major statesman and a capable diplomat with extensive knowledge, Peter was able to correctly assess the main goals and objectives of Russia in the international arena - strengthening its independence and international authority, acquiring access to the Baltic and Black seas, which was of exceptional importance for economic development countries. Peter managed to prepare the creation of the Northern Union, which finally took shape in 1699. It included Russia, Saxony, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland) and Denmark. According to Peter’s plans, the military defeat of Sweden, which dominated the Balkan Sea, became the primary task; if successful, Russia would return the territories seized from it by the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 (Sweden received territories from Lake Ladoga to Ivan-Gorod) and access to the sea would open. However, in order to launch military operations against Sweden, it was necessary to achieve peace with Turkey and thereby avoid a war on two fronts. This problem was solved by the embassy of clerk EI. Ukraintsev: on July 17, 1700, a truce was concluded with the Sultan for 30 years. Russia received the mouth of the Don with the Azov fortress and was freed from paying a humiliating tribute to the Crimean Khan. After the settlement of relations with Turkey, Peter I directed all his efforts to fight Sweden. The Northern War lasted more than twenty years (1700 - 1721). The turning point in the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava (June 27, 1709), during which the Swedish troops were defeated. Having won the Northern War, Russia became one of the great European powers. During the Northern War, Peter I had to return again to the southern direction of his foreign policy. Incited by Charles XII and leading diplomats European countries, the Turkish Sultan, in violation of the treaty of isolation for a period of 30 years, declared war on Russia on November 10, 1710. The war with Turkey was short-lived. On July 12, 1711, the Prut Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia returned Azov to Turkey, tore down the Taganrog fortress and the Stone Castle on the Dnieper, and withdrew troops from Poland. An important direction of the foreign policy of Peter’s Russia was the east. In 1716 - 1717, Peter I was sent to Central Asia across the Caspian Sea, a 6,000-strong detachment of Prince A. Bekovich - Cherkassky with the goal of persuading the Khiva Khan to become a citizen and scouting out the route to India. However, both the prince himself and his detachment, located in the cities of Khiva, were destroyed by order of the khan. In 1722 - 1723 The Persian campaign was undertaken led by Peter I. On the whole, it turned out to be successful. Peter ensured the political and economic sovereignty of the country, restored its access to the sea, and carried out a real cultural revolution. He borrowed widely from European experience, but took from it what served to achieve his main goal - the transformation of Russia into a powerful independent power. Peter's reforms not only strengthened the autocracy, but with Peter's reforms the most brutal period of serfdom began. Peter I, being a supporter of Western rationalism, carried out his reforms in an Asian way, relying on the state, and brutally dealt with those who interfered with the reforms. The negative consequences of the reforms of Peter I, along with the conservation of autocracy and serfdom, should also include the civilizational split in Russian society. This split occurred back in the 17th century. in connection with Nikok's church reform, and in the Petrine era it deepened even more. The schism took over everyday life, culture, and the church. But the most dangerous thing for Russian society was the split between the ruling class and the ruling elite, on the one hand, and the bulk of the population, on the other. As a result, two cultures of the master and lower strata emerged, which began to develop in parallel.

No. 17. The period of palace coups in Russia (1725-1762). Their causes and consequences.

The period of Russian history that followed the death of Peter I was called the “Era of Palace Revolutions.” It was characterized by an intense struggle between noble factions for power, which led to frequent changes of reigning persons on the throne and reshuffles in their immediate circle. On the night of January 28, 1725, the noble nobility gathered in anticipation of Peter's death for a meeting about his successor. There were two main contenders: the wife of Peter I, Catherine, and the son of Tsarevich Alexei, 9-year-old Peter. While discussing the issue of the receiver, guard officers somehow found themselves in the corner of the hall. They openly began to express their opinions about the course of the meeting, declaring that they would break the heads of the old boyars if they went against Catherine. Thus the issue of power was resolved. The Senate proclaimed Catherine empress. Russia saw an unprecedented phenomenon: on the Russian throne there was a woman, and not of Russian origin, a captive, a second wife, barely recognized by many as a legal wife. The reign of Catherine I can only partially be called a continuation of the reign of Peter I. Some of the plans outlined by Peter were carried out: in 1725, the Academy of Sciences was opened, and the Order of Alexander Nevsky was established. However, Catherine I did not understand anything about state affairs. Menshikov's ambition, which knew no bounds, reached its limit at this time. Being, after the death of Peter I, actually the ruler of Russia, he also intended to become related to the royal family. Menshikov now achieved Catherine’s consent to the marriage of Peter Alekseevich with his daughter. Gradually, the program of Peter I as a transformer of Russia began to be forgotten. Retreats began, first in domestic and then in foreign policy. Most of all, the empress was interested in balls, feasts and outfits. On May 6, 1727, Catherine I died after a long illness. 11-year-old Peter II was declared emperor, under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Menshikov took measures to further enhance his position. But soon Peter II began to feel burdened by his tutelage. Taking advantage of the illness of His Serene Highness, the Dolgorukys and Osterman managed to win Peter II over to their side in five weeks. In September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and deprived of all ranks and awards. The fall of Menshikov actually meant a palace coup. Firstly, the composition of the Supreme Privy Council changed. Secondly, the position of the Supreme Privy Council has changed. Twelve-year-old Peter II soon declared himself a full-fledged ruler; This put an end to the regency of the Council. At the beginning of 1728 Peter II moved to the capital of Moscow for his coronation. Peter II was almost not interested in the affairs of the state; the Dolgorukys, like Menshikov, tried to consolidate their influence by concluding a new marriage alliance. In mid-January 1730 The wedding of Peter II with the daughter of A.G. was planned. Dolgoruky Natalya. But chance confused all the cards. Peter II contracted smallpox and died the day before the planned wedding. And along with him, the Romanov family in the male line also ended. Eight members of the Supreme Privy Council discussed possible candidates for the throne. The choice fell on Anna Ioanovna, the niece of Peter I. In deep secret D.M. Golitsyn and D.M. Dolgoruky compiled “standards”, i.e. conditions for Anna's accession to the throne, and sent them to her for signature in Mitau. According to the “conditions,” Anna was supposed to rule the state not as an autocratic empress, but together with the Supreme Privy Council. She signed the “conditions” and promised to “maintain them without any exception.” The reign of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740) is assessed by most historians as a dark and cruel time. The empress herself, rude, uneducated, had little interest in state affairs. Main role Ernest von Biron, the favorite of the Empress Yagan, played a role in governing the country. The Empress had fun, organizing luxurious festivities and entertainment. Anna generously spent government money on organizing these holidays and feeding her favorites. After the death of Anna Ivanovna in October 1740, Russia was presented with another surprise: according to Anna’s will, three-month-old Ivan VI Antonovich was on the throne, and Biron became regent. Thus, the fate of Russia was placed in the hands of Biron for 17 years. Less than a month after Anna's death, Field Marshal B-Kh. Minikh, with the help of the guards, arrested Biron, who was sent into exile in Siberia, and the infant emperor's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was proclaimed regent. Anna Leopoldovna had neither the ability nor the desire to rule Russia. Under these conditions, the eyes of the Russian nobility and guard turned to the daughter of Peter I, Tsarevna Elizabeth. On November 25, 1741, a new coup took place. By the forces of the guard, Elizaveta Petrovna was elevated to the throne. Elizabeth reigned for 20 years (1741-1761). At this time, the supreme power gained some stability. All the rights given to it by Peter I were returned to the Senate. The Empress patronized industry and trade, founded loan banks, and sent the children of merchants to study trade and accounting in Holland. Laws were relaxed and the death penalty was abolished; torture was used in exceptional cases. Fearing a palace coup, she preferred to stay awake at night and sleep during the day. Elizabeth had no children, so back in 1742 she appointed her nephew (the son of her sister Anna) Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich as heir to the throne. In 1744, Elizabeth decided to marry him and sent him a bride from Germany. It was a 15-year-old girl, Sophia Augusta Frederica. She converted to Orthodoxy with the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1745, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich. In 1754 their son Pavel was born. December 24, 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died. Her nephew ascended the throne under the name Peter III. In February 1762, he issued a manifesto freeing the nobility from the unconditional obligation imposed on them by Peter the Great to serve the state. On March 21, 1762, a decree appeared on the complete secularization of church lands and on the assignment of salaries to monks from the government. This measure was aimed at the complete subordination of the church to the state and caused a sharply negative reaction from the clergy. Peter III also thought about measures to increase the combat effectiveness of the army and navy. The army was hastily rebuilt in the Prussian way, introduced new form. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied. Ekaterina Alekseevna, who had long been striving for power, took advantage of this dissatisfaction. a manifesto is drawn up on Catherine’s accession to the throne to save the church and state from the dangers that threatened them. On June 29, Peter III signed an act of abdication from the throne. During the six months of his reign, the common people did not have time to find out Peter III. Ekaterina Alekseevna found herself on the Russian throne without having the right to do so. Trying to justify her actions to society and history, she, with the help of the courtiers, managed to create an extremely negative image of Peter III. So, in the 37 years after the death of Peter I, 6 emperors changed on the Russian throne. Historians still argue about the number of palace coups that occurred during this time. What was their reason? What were their consequences? The struggle of individual figures was a reflection of the struggle between various groups of society over class interests. The “Charter” of Peter I only provided an opportunity for the struggle for the throne, for carrying out palace coups, but was not at all the reason for them. The reforms that took place during the reign of Peter I introduced significant changes to the composition of the Russian nobility. The composition was distinguished by the diversity and diversity of the elements included in it. The struggle between these heterogeneous elements of the ruling class was one of the main reasons for the palace coups. There was another reason for the numerous changes on and around the Russian throne. It consisted in the fact that after each new coup, the nobility sought to expand its rights and privileges, as well as reduce and eliminate responsibilities to the state. Palace coups did not pass without a trace for Russia. Their consequences largely determined the course of the country's subsequent history. First of all, attention is drawn to changes in the social structure of society. Since the end of the 18th century. life began to deal cruel blows to the ancient Russian aristocracy. Social changes also affected peasants. Legislation increasingly depersonalized the serf, erasing from him the last signs of a legally capable person. Thus, by the middle of the 18th century. Two main classes of Russian society finally emerged: noble landowners and serfs.

No. 19. The reign of Paul I: domestic and foreign policy.

A madman on the throne - this is how the four-year reign of Paul I (1796-1801), who succeeded his mother Catherine II on the Russian throne, is often imagined. And there are more than enough reasons for such an opinion. To understand the logic of Paul I’s actions, it is necessary to dwell on two main points. The first is what Russia was like at the end of the 18th century. The second is what preceded the accession to the throne of the new emperor. A clear indication of the state of the Russian economy was its budget. In 1796, the total amount of state revenue was 73 million rubles. total amount expenses in 1796 amounted to 78 million rubles. Of these, 39 million rubles were spent on maintaining the royal court and state apparatus. From the data presented it is clear that in 1796 state expenses exceeded income by 5 million rubles. The budget deficit was associated not only with an active foreign policy, but also with terrible embezzlement. It was covered by external loans. The ruling circles understood that one of the main reasons for the state’s financial difficulties was the increase in peasants’ duties in favor of the landowners. However, the government did not want and could not limit landowners' rights. And since it was no longer possible to increase direct taxes on peasants, indirect taxes (on salt, wine) were increased. Thus, the serf-dominated economic system in the second half of the 18th century. began to show cracks. The autocratic government faced the threat of losing its control over social processes. An alarming warning for her was the peasant war led by Pugachev. Paul's accession to the throne was preceded by a long court struggle and conflicts within the royal family itself. Rival factions at court tried to make the heir a tool in their political game. Surviving sources give reason to say that in the 1770-1780s. the heir was filled with the best intentions to limit autocracy and serfdom in Russia. However, the French revolutionary thunder of 1789 made an indelible impression on Paul. Frightened by the execution of Louis XVI and the Jacobin terror, he completely loses his youthful liberal dreams. By the end of the reign of Catherine II, Paul sought to immediately begin strengthening autocratic power and discipline in the army and state. From the very first hours of the new reign, feverish work began to strengthen the centralization of power; orders, manifestos, laws, and decrees began to pour in. During the four years of Paul's reign, 2,179 pieces of legislation were issued, or an average of about 42 per month. In 1797, Paul abolished the “Charter” of Peter I, which encouraged the struggle of different factions to seize the throne. From now on, the throne was to pass from father to eldest son, and in the absence of sons, to the eldest of the brothers. Another measure of the new government was the immediate conscription of all those enrolled in military service “in absentia.” This was a crushing blow to the long-standing practice of enrolling noble children into regiments literally from the moment of birth, so that by the time they reached adulthood they were already in “decent rank.” The state of finances, the need to increase the solvency of the population, considerations of international prestige, and the danger of a new peasant war forced Paul I to look for ways to resolve the peasant issue. On April 5, 1797, a manifesto was issued, commonly (but incorrectly) called the Three-Day Corvee Manifesto. In reality, the manifesto contained only a ban on forcing peasants to work on Sundays. One should not think that the actions of Paul I were aimed at improving the situation of the peasants. His main concern was state interests, the desire to increase the flow of funds into the treasury, and to prevent peasant uprisings. The same can be said about soldiers. Of course, the increased drill made the service extremely difficult. But at the same time, the emperor sought to eliminate embezzlement and other abuses in the army that were so characteristic of the end of Catherine’s reign, Paul was also interested in technical progress, released

large sums for cleaning canals. His interests include issues of streamlining forestry, saving state-owned forests from felling, establishing a forestry charter,