In the second half of the nineteenth century, Russian literature and culture flourished. In the public life of the country during this period there are important events: Crimean War, numerous peasant unrest, the abolition of serfdom, the emergence of capitalism. In general, social relations overcome a certain bar, a certain level, after which a return to the recent past seems impossible. First of all, this concerns attitudes towards a person, his problems, without distinction between categories and classes. The process of formation of the “new man”, his social and moral self-awareness begins. It is not surprising that such aspirations made realism the main direction in Russian literature by the mid-19th century, through which the principles of depicting reality were developed. His new stage was closely connected with an attempt to penetrate in detail into the depths human feelings and relationships. The authors demonstrate a desire not only to convey their emotions through characters, but also to reveal the main causes of social evil. As a result, authors are increasingly turning to folk themes in their works; the image of a peasant, a peasant, is becoming one of the main ones in fiction. Traditions of realism laid down by Lermontov and Pushkin, Gogol, are consolidated, their works in many ways become a standard for new authors. Critical reviews of works acquire considerable significance and weight. This was largely due to the activities of Chernyshevsky, including his dissertation “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality.” It is impossible not to remember that it was at this time that a significant event took place: in Russian Empire canceled serfdom, which of course is reflected in fiction. The desire for further reforms on this basis led to controversy and the emergence of two camps: liberals and democrats. The first proposed political and economic reforms of gradual change public relations, the latter insisted on immediate, radical changes, usually through revolutionary processes. Dobrolyubov, Herzen, Nekrasov, among others, belonged to the democratic camp, Chernyshevsky, and Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Druzhinin, Leskov adhered to liberal views. As a rule, the exchange of views and ideas was carried out through polemics on the pages of literary magazines. Also in the literature there are disputes between supporters of “pure art” and adherents of the “Gogolian” movement, and later – between “soilists” and “Westerners”. Under the influence of the ideology of the raznochintsy, ideas of “real criticism” are developing, the problem is being raised positive hero. Creative search realist writers lead to new artistic discoveries, enrichment of the novel genre, and strengthening of psychologism. In the second half of the 19th century, a whole galaxy of talented Russian writers appeared: F.M. Dostoevsky (Poor people, Crime and Punishment), I.S. Turgenev (Fathers and Sons, Notes of a Hunter), I.A. Goncharov (Ordinary history, Oblomov, Precipice), A.N. Ostrovsky (Thunderstorm, Not everything is Maslenitsa for the cat, Lack of dowry, Our own people - we will be numbered), N.A. Nekrasov (Princess Volkonskaya, Who Lives Well in Rus'), M.E. Saltykov - Shchedrin (The History of a City, Lord Golovlev, Poshekhon Antiquity), L.N. Tolstoy (War and Peace), A.P. Chekhov (Novel of a Doctor, Novel of a Reporter, Ward No. 6, Death of an Official, Melancholy, Vanka, The Cherry Orchard).

The 19th century for Russian literature is rightly called golden. He gave us many talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and became a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century is replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is considered to be A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.

In the 40s, the “natural school” emerged, which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the “sitters” was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.

From the second half of the 19th century, realism received the name critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two movements are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development societies without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature; they reflected the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic serfdom, the truth of life made the works of that time popular.

Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century had significant differences from Western European realism. Many writers of that time indicate in their works the motives that prepared the shift to revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular novels and stories in Russia and abroad were those of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws governing its development. The characters in the works talk about the imperfections of society, conscience and justice.

One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and sons”, “on the eve”, etc.)

Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” made a great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth.

The works of I. A. Goncharov show the morals of officials and landowners.

Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader and force them to show sympathy for the “humiliated and insulted.”

Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works brings out clean water officials and embezzlers, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.

L.N. Tolstoy in his work showed all the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.

A.P. Chekhov's feelings about the fate of Russian society were reflected in his works, giving him a writer whose talent still inspires admiration to this day.

Literature of the late 19th century had a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also entered the struggle for their ideals. The mood of society at that time is reflected in painting, introducing into people’s consciousness the idea of ​​equality and benefit for the whole society.

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>>Literature: Russian literature second half of the 19th century century

Russian literature; second half of the 19th century

60s . This time went down in Russian history as a period of intensified social struggle. After the reform of 1861, a wave of peasant uprisings took place in the country. The problems of reorganizing life worried all active forces - from revolutionary democrats who called Rus' to the ax, to soft and liberal supporters of a gradual and bloodless evolutionary path.

In the 60s of the 19th century, the character of literary life. The groups of Slavophiles, Westerners and revolutionary democrats.

Slavophilism - a direction in Russian social and literary thought 40-60s of the XIX century. It defended the originality of Russia's historical and cultural path. Slavophiles called their movement Slavic-Christian, Moscow, truly Russian. They idealized the religious, moral and social principles of Kievan and Muscovite Rus', creating a model of utopian social order. For Slavophiles true story Russia was tragically cut short by the reforms of Peter 1.

Westerners, on the contrary, believed that the true story Russian state only began with Peter's reforms. They affirmed the “Western”, bourgeois path of development of Russia, and were active opponents of serfdom. And these ideas were defended not only by the revolutionary-democratic wing (N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky), but also by liberal Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, T.N. Granovsky, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, I. I. Panaev, I. S. Tyrgenev).

Both Slavophiles and Westerners opposed serfdom, but they had different ideas about the future path of Russia. The escalation of disputes led to the severance of all personal relations between previously friendly people and to their bitter polemics.

The ideological disputes between Westerners and Slavophiles are depicted in “The Past and Thoughts”, “Soroka-Borovka” by A. I. Herzen, reflected in “Notes of a Hunter” by I. S. Tyrgenev, “Tarantas” by V. A. Sollogub. Here is how Herzen assessed these two directions: “We had the same love, but not the same one. They and we have a crush on early years... a feeling of boundless love for the Russian people, embracing the entire existence... And we, like Janus or like a double-headed eagle, looked in different directions, while our hearts beat alone.”

There was a trend that sought to smooth out the contradictions between Westerners and Slavophiles - “soilism”. F. M. Dostoevsky, ...... Ap. A. Grigoriev and N. N. Strakhov asserted the “all-humanity” of the Russian national spirit. They believed that it was necessary to overcome the disunity between the intelligentsia and the people. “Pochvennsky” called for the preservation of identity (national soil) and did not reject the positive role of the reforms of Peter 1. We are strong as a whole people, strong with the strength that lives in the simplest and most humble individuals - that’s what Count L.N. Tolstoy wanted to say, - Strakhov wrote, and he is absolutely right.”

In the 60s - during the period of the rise of social thought - the periodical press acquired an increasingly important role. If at the beginning of the century the number of newspapers and magazines numbered in the dozens, then in the second half of the century - in the hundreds. Almost all works of Russian classical literature were first published and actively discussed on the pages of magazines and only then appeared before the reader in separately published books. A special type of Russian “thick” literary magazine that emerged in the 19th century became a phenomenon national culture.

Read the names of the authors and the titles of works that were published, for example, in the Sovremennik magazine, founded by A. S. Pushkin in 1836 (the magazine existed until 1866): “Notes of a Hunter” and “Mumu” ​​by I. S. Tyrgenev, “An Ordinary Story” and “Oblomov’s Dream” (in the appendix to the magazine) by I. A. Goncharova, “Childhood” and “Adolescence” by L. N. Tolstoy, poems by N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Maykov, A. K Tolstoy, A. A. Fet, Y. P. Polonsky... Since 1847, “Contemporary” was published by N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev, and later N. G. Chernyshevsky (with 1853) and N. A. Dobrolyubov (since 1856).

Along with Chernyshevsky, revolutionary democratic criticism was represented by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov (1836-1861). In just five years of his activity, he created a number of articles that are still important and interesting. Dobrolyubov called his criticism real. The merits of “real criticism” appeared in the articles “What is Oblomovism?”, “Characteristics of the Russian common people”, “When will the real day come?”, “The Dark Kingdom”, “A ray of light in dark kingdom" For Dobrolyubov, the question of the “writer’s worldview” came first. In the supplement to the Sovremennik magazine - "Whistle" he created satirical images of the poets Apollo Kapelkin, Konrad Lilienschwager and Jacob Ham.

The Sovremennik magazine has gathered talented critics around it. And the point is not even that it was on its pages that the most important critical works appeared, but that criticism took a strong place in Russian literature.

The fierceness of the confrontation when resolving pressing issues in the life of society inevitably caused conflicts. A striking outburst of this confrontation was the split that occurred in the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. The immediate reason for it was the article by N. A. Dobrolyubov “When will the real day come?” about the novel by I. S. Typgenev “On the Eve” (1860). Tyrgenev's work was about the Bulgarian revolutionary Insarov, who dreamed of delivering the Balkan Slavs from the Turkish yoke. Dobrolyubov’s prediction about the inevitability of the appearance of “Russian Insarovs” who would fight against the oppressors of the people did not at all coincide with the predictions of the writer himself and even frightened him. Having read the critic’s article before its publication, Typgenev presented Nekrasov with an ultimatum: “Choose: either me or Dobrolyubov!” Nekrasov chose a like-minded person. The article over which there was a dispute appeared in print, and a break became inevitable. Following Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, I. A. Goncharov, A. A. Fet and others left the magazine.

Discussion of the burning problems of that time was reflected in the fate of authors and works that, it would seem, had long ago firmly established themselves. Even the contribution of the great Pushkin to Russian literature is being reassessed. Both opponents and defenders of the great poet’s work actively used his name and his works in their battles. I. A. Goncharov wrote: “Pushkin is the father, the founder of Russian art, just as Lomonosov is the father of science in Russia.” And there were many such judgments. But the popular critic D.I. Pisarev argued that Pushkin is just “an idol of previous generations.” He set himself the task of overthrowing the “Outdated Idol” in order to achieve the victory of “realism.” As you will see, Bazarov, the hero of I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” will stand in the same positions. The name of Pushkin was closely associated with the ongoing controversy over “pure art.” Intertwined in this debate are questions related to the role of literature, which have been heard in the art of many centuries, and quite topical topics generated by the preparation of the reform of 1861 and its implementation.

“Art for art’s sake”, or “pure art”, is a conventional name for a number of aesthetic concepts, which are characterized by the affirmation of the self-worth of any artistic creativity, i.e., the independence of art from politics, social problems, and educational tasks. This position could also be progressive, for example, when its supporters contrasted the depiction of personal feelings with pompous and loyal odes. But often it reflected rather conservative views. This is how V. G. Belinsky expressed his attitude towards such aesthetic views: “Fully recognizing that art, first of all, must be art, we nevertheless think that the idea of ​​some kind of pure, detached art living in its own
own sphere... there is an abstract, dreamy thought. Such art never happens anywhere.”

Getting acquainted with Pushkin's lyrics, you have already seen how difficult it was for Him to resolve the question of the role and vocation of a poet. And therefore it is difficult to understand why in these years such wonderful lines were reproached for him, seeing in them the slogan of “pure art”:

Not for everyday worries,
Not for gain, not for battles,
We were born to inspire
For sweet sounds and prayers...

For all theorists of “pure art,” the defense of the absolute independence of creativity presupposes sharp restrictions in the choice of topics. In other words, the declaration of freedom collides with real unfreedom. When we turn to Pushkin’s work, the extraordinary breadth of his approach to the world around us, the completeness of his coverage of life and the richness of its reflection are obvious to us.

Representatives of “pure art” were reproached for refusing to make a decision social problems. and numerous parodies emphasized precisely this feature of their works.

To confirm this, it is enough to read the poem by D. D. Minaev 1 “Duet of Fet and Rosenheim 2”.

1 Minaev Dmitry Dmitrievich(1835-1889) - Russian poet. He was famous as the “king of rhyme.” His satirical talent was especially evident when working for the Iskra magazine. Master of epigram, parody, poetic feuilleton.

2 Rosenheim. Mikhail Pavlovich(1820-1887) - Russian poet, publicist. He was known as an “exposer” of moral vices. His progressiveness was superficial, and Slavophile ideas often turned into crude nationalism.

D. D. Minaev
Duet of Fet and Rosenheim

(Unconscious rejoicing and unconscious blasphemy)

Fet
I came to you with greetings
Tell them that the sun has risen.

Rosenheim
I came to you with a pamphlet
Tell me what it's like this summer
In taverns, in buffets
Meat prices have risen everywhere.

Fet
Tell them that the forest has woken up.
All woke up, every branch.

Rosenheim
Tell me how I'm bent
From worries and horrified:
The whole city choked
And he's thirsty for wine.

Fet
Tell me that with the same passion,
Like yesterday, I came again...

Rosenheim
Tell me what's going on wild power
We are being swallowed by the mouth of hell
The evil of the yoke of taxation.

Fet
Tell me that from everywhere
It blows me away with joy.

Rosenheim
And open it to your loved ones,
That I will take all bribes
Beat like old dishes
And my verse will dispel their groan.

Now it is obvious to us that such a clash between poets and prose writers only demonstrated the one-sidedness of their judgments.

When turning to the art of the 60s of the 19th century, one cannot stop only at literature. Painting and music responded with equal force to the demands of the time.

In Russian painting, the “Itinerants” loudly declared themselves. The names of I. N. Kramsmogo, I. E. Repin, V. G. Perov, A. K. Savrasov, V. I. Surikov, I. I. Shishkin and others became widely known. The Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, which emerged in 1870, relied on the activities of the Artel of Free Artists (1863)

The social orientation was clearly manifested in the work of the “Itinerants”. For them, the guide to action was the poems of N. A. Nekrasov:

Share of the people
His happiness
Light and freedom
First of all!

In the 60s, Russian national music also flourished. Into world history musical culture included composers M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P. Borodin. The works they created still live on opera stages.

70s. The reform of 1861 was left behind, but dissatisfaction with its results shook great empire. As a result, new revolutionary forces emerge, striving to change life in the country, the populists. They put forward the theory of “peasant socialism,” deciding to make the transition to socialism through the peasant community, bypassing capitalism. “Going to the people” became popular among progressive youth, but it was not successful. A split occurs in the revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom", and the part that separated from the organization and received the name "People's Will" set itself a new task - the struggle to overthrow the autocracy through terror.

A group of writers appears in literature reflecting populist ideals and sentiments - G.I. Uspensky, N. N. 3latovratsky, S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, N. I. Naumov, S. Karonin (N. E. Petropavlovsky), etc. Among this galaxy, the most prominent author was Gleb Ivanovich Uspensky, who began publishing as early as in the 60s. Even then his “Morals of Rasteryaeva Street” became known. In the 70s, he was passionate about “going to the people” and lived in the Novgorod and Samara provinces. A series of his essays appears: “The Peasant and Peasant Labor”, “The Power of the Land”, “Quarter of a Horse”, “The Book of Receipts”, etc.

The creative searches of writers and poets who have already established themselves in literature continue. In poetry, the leading role is played by N. A. Nekrasov: his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” appears. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin publishes the novel “The Golovlev Gentlemen”, L. N. Tolstoy - the novel “Anna Karenina”, F. M. Dostoevsky - the novels “Demons”, “Teenager”, “The Brothers Karamazov”.

N. S. Leskov occupies a special place in Russian literature. In his works “The Soborians”, “On Knives” and “The Enchanted Wanderer” the distinguishing feature the writer's creativity - the search for gifted natures, positive types of Russian people.

In 1866, the Sovremennik magazine was closed. The leading place in journalism is occupied by “ Russian word" And " Domestic notes"(after the death of Nekrasov in 1877, Saltykov-Shchedrin began to manage the magazine).

80s. On March 1, 1881, Tsar Alexander 11 was killed. The Narodnaya Volya societies were destroyed. A time began that was often called the “twilight” of Russian life. The banned magazines “Otechestvennye zapiski” and “Delo” are being replaced by the magazines “Week” and “Vestnik Evropy”, which are moderate in their views. “Dragonfly” and “Shards” with their petty humor replaced “Whistle” and “Spark”.

The mood of that time - the era of “timelessness” and decline - was clearly expressed in their work by the poet S. Ya. Nadson and the writer V. M. Garshin. During these years, V. G. Korolenko became famous for “Makar’s Dream”, “The River Plays”, “The Blind Musician”, “In bad society", "The Forest is Noisy", etc.), A.P. Chekhov actively enters into literature.

Let's sum it up

Questions and tasks

1. How do you connect such concepts as liberal, Westernizer, Slavophile, revolutionary democrat, “soilist,” populist with the second half of the 19th century?
2. How do you understand the assessment of the positions of Slavophiles and Westerners given by A. I. Herzen?
3. To what time do you attribute the heyday of Russian realism? What authors is he associated with?
4. What is “pure art”? What are its main features? Who and why actively opposed “pure art”? What was this confrontation expressed in? Give examples.
5. How can we explain the sharp increase in periodical publications and the increasing influence of magazines in the second half of the 19th century?

Topics of reports and abstracts

1. The influence of the creativity of writers and poets of the first half of the 19th century on the development of literature in the second half of the century.
2. Reflection of the ideas of Slavophiles and Westerners in society and literature of the second half of the 19th century.
3. “Soilism” as a phenomenon of social thought.

Recommended reading

G r i g o r e v A p. A. Literary criticism. M., 1967.
Gurevich A. M. Dynamics of realism. M., 1995.
D r u z i n A. V. Beautiful and eternal. M., 1988.
Kulesh about V.I. History of Russian criticism. M., 1972.
F okht U. Ways of Russian realism. M., 1963.

Aksakov Ivan Sergeevich (1823-1886) - poet and publicist. One of the leaders of Russian Slavophiles.

Aksakov Konstantin Sergeevich (1817-1860) - poet, literary critic, linguist, historian. The inspirer and ideologist of Slavophilism.

Aksakov Sergei Timofeevich (1791-1859) - writer and public figure, literary and theater critic. Wrote a book about fishing and hunting. Father of writers Konstantin and Ivan Aksakov. The most famous work: the fairy tale “The Scarlet Flower”.

Annensky Innokenty Fedorovich (1855-1909) - poet, playwright, literary critic, linguist, translator. Author of the plays: “King Ixion”, “Laodamia”, “Melanippe the Philosopher”, “Thamira the Kefared”.

Baratynsky Evgeniy Abramovich (1800-1844) - poet and translator. Author of the poems: “Eda”, “Feasts”, “Ball”, “Concubine” (“Gypsy”).

Batyushkov Konstantin Nikolaevich (1787-1855) - poet. Also the author of a number of well-known prose articles: “On the character of Lomonosov”, “Evening at Kantemir’s” and others.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigorievich (1811-1848) - literary critic. He headed the critical department in the publication Otechestvennye zapiski. Author of numerous critical articles. He had a huge influence on Russian literature.

Bestuzhev-Marlinsky Alexander Alexandrovich (1797-1837) - Byronist writer, literary critic. Published under the pseudonym Marlinsky. Published the almanac "Polar Star". He was one of the Decembrists. Author of prose: “Test”, “Terrible fortune-telling”, “Frigate Nadezhda” and others.

Vyazemsky Pyotr Andreevich (1792-1878) - poet, memoirist, historian, literary critic. One of the founders and first head of the Russian Historical Society. Close friend Pushkin.

Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevetinov (1805-1827) - poet, prose writer, philosopher, translator, literary critic. Author of 50 poems. He was also known as an artist and musician. Organizer of the secret philosophical association “Society of Philosophy”.

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich (1812-1870) - writer, philosopher, teacher. The most famous works: the novel “Who is to Blame?”, the stories “Doctor Krupov”, “The Thieving Magpie”, “Damaged”.

Glinka Sergei Nikolaevich (1776-1847) - writer, memoirist, historian. The ideological inspirer of conservative nationalism. Author of the following works: “Selim and Roxana”, “The Virtues of Women” and others.

Glinka Fedor Nikolaevich (1876-1880) - poet and writer. Member of the Decembrist Society. The most famous works: the poems “Karelia” and “The Mysterious Drop”.

Gogol Nikolai Vasilievich (1809-1852) - writer, playwright, poet, literary critic. Classic of Russian literature. Author: " Dead souls”, the cycle of stories “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, the stories “The Overcoat” and “Viy”, the plays “The Inspector General” and “Marriage” and many other works.

Goncharov Ivan Aleksandrovich (1812-1891) – writer, literary critic. Author of the novels: “Oblomov”, “Cliff”, “An Ordinary Story”.

Griboyedov Alexander Sergeevich (1795-1829) - poet, playwright and composer. He was a diplomat and died in service in Persia. The most famous work is the poem “Woe from Wit,” which served as the source of many catchphrases.

Grigorovich Dmitry Vasilievich (1822-1900) - writer.

Davydov Denis Vasilievich (1784-1839) – poet, memoirist. Hero Patriotic War 1812. Author of numerous poems and war memoirs.

Dal Vladimir Ivanovich (1801-1872) – writer and ethnographer. Being a military doctor, he collected folklore along the way. The most famous literary work – « Dictionary living Great Russian language." Dahl worked on the dictionary for more than 50 years.

Delvig Anton Antonovich (1798-1831) – poet, publisher.

Dobrolyubov Nikolai Alexandrovich (1836-1861) - literary critic and poet. He published under the pseudonyms -bov and N. Laibov. Author of numerous critical and philosophical articles.

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich (1821-1881) - writer and philosopher. Recognized classic of Russian literature. Author of works: “The Brothers Karamazov”, “Idiot”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Teenager” and many others.

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexander Mikhailovich (1826-1896)

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexey Mikhailovich (1821-1908) - poet and satirist. Together with his brothers and the writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov. Author of the comedy “Strange Night” and the collection of poems “Songs of Old Age”.

Zhemchuzhnikov Vladimir Mikhailovich (1830-1884) - poet. Together with his brothers and the writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852) - poet, literary critic, translator, founder of Russian romanticism.

Zagoskin Mikhail Nikolaevich (1789-1852) - writer and playwright. Author of the first Russian historical novels. Author of the works “The Prankster”, “Yuri Miloslavsky, or the Russians in 1612”, “Kulma Petrovich Miroshev” and others.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826) – historian, writer and poet. Author of the monumental work “History of the Russian State” in 12 volumes. He is the author of the stories: “ Poor Lisa", "Evgeniy and Yulia" and many others.

Kireevsky Ivan Vasilievich (1806-1856) - religious philosopher, literary critic, Slavophile.

Krylov Ivan Andreevich (1769-1844) - poet and fabulist. Author of 236 fables, many of which became popular expressions. Published magazines: “Mail of Spirits”, “Spectator”, “Mercury”.

Kuchelbecker Wilhelm Karlovich (1797-1846) - poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Close friend of Pushkin. Author of works: “The Argives”, “The Death of Byron”, “The Eternal Jew”.

Lazhechnikov Ivan Ivanovich (1792-1869) - writer, one of the founders of Russian historical novel. Author of the novels “The Ice House” and “Basurman”.

Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich (1814-1841) - poet, writer, playwright, artist. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: the novel “A Hero of Our Time”, the story “ Prisoner of the Caucasus", poems "Mtsyri" and "Masquerade".

Leskov Nikolai Semenovich (1831-1895) – writer. The most famous works: “Lefty”, “Cathedrals”, “On Knives”, “Righteous”.

Nekrasov Nikolai Alekseevich (1821-1878) - poet and writer. Classic of Russian literature. Head of the Sovremennik magazine, editor of the Otechestvennye Zapiski magazine. The most famous works: “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, “Russian Women”, “Frost, Red Nose”.

Ogarev Nikolai Platonovich (1813-1877) - poet. Author of poems, poems, critical articles.

Odoevsky Alexander Ivanovich (1802-1839) - poet and writer. He was one of the Decembrists. Author of the poem "Vasilko", the poems "Zosima" and "Elder Prophetess".

Odoevsky Vladimirovich Fedorovich (1804-1869) - writer, thinker, one of the founders of musicology. He wrote fantastic and utopian works. Author of the novel “Year 4338” and numerous short stories.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich (1823-1886) – playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author of plays: “The Thunderstorm”, “Dowry”, “The Marriage of Balzaminov” and many others.

Panaev Ivan Ivanovich (1812-1862) – writer, literary critic, journalist. Author of works: “Mama’s Boy”, “Meeting at the Station”, “Lions of the Province” and others.

Pisarev Dmitry Ivanovich (1840-1868) - literary critic of the sixties, translator. Many of Pisarev’s articles were dismantled into aphorisms.

Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich (1799-1837) - poet, writer, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author: poems “Poltava” and “Eugene Onegin”, stories “ Captain's daughter", a collection of stories "Belkin's Tales" and numerous poems. Founded the literary magazine Sovremennik.

Raevsky Vladimir Fedoseevich (1795-1872) - poet. Participant in the Patriotic War of 1812. He was one of the Decembrists.

Ryleev Kondraty Fedorovich (1795-1826) - poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Author of the historical poetic cycle "Dumas". Published the literary almanac "Polar Star".

Saltykov-Shchedrin Mikhail Efgrafovich (1826-1889) - writer, journalist. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: “Lord Golovlevs”, “The Wise Minnow”, “Poshekhon Antiquity”. He was the editor of the journal Otechestvennye zapiski.

Samarin Yuri Fedorovich (1819-1876) – publicist and philosopher.

Sukhovo-Kobylin Alexander Vasilievich (1817-1903) - playwright, philosopher, translator. Author of the plays: “Krechinsky’s Wedding”, “The Affair”, “The Death of Tarelkin”.

Tolstoy Alexey Konstantinovich (1817-1875) - writer, poet, playwright. Author of the poems: “The Sinner”, “The Alchemist”, the plays “Fantasy”, “Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich”, the stories “The Ghoul” and “The Wolf’s Adopted”. Together with the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, he created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich (1828-1910) - writer, thinker, educator. Classic of Russian literature. Served in the artillery. Participated in the defense of Sevastopol. The most famous works: “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”. In 1901 he was excommunicated from the church.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich (1818-1883) - writer, poet, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: “Mumu”, “Asya”, “ Noble Nest", "Fathers and Sons".

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich (1803-1873) - poet. Classic of Russian literature.

Fet Afanasy Afanasyevich (1820-1892) – lyric poet, memoirist, translator. Classic of Russian literature. Author of numerous romantic poems. Translated Juvenal, Goethe, Catullus.

Khomyakov Alexey Stepanovich (1804-1860) - poet, philosopher, theologian, artist.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889) - writer, philosopher, literary critic. Author of the novels “What to do?” and “Prologue”, as well as the stories “Alferyev”, “Small Stories”.

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich (1860-1904) - writer, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author of plays " The Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya" and numerous stories. Conducted a population census on Sakhalin Island.

The 19th century is a significant century in Russian literature. He gave the world such great names as A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy... The literature of this time is clearly divided into two periods: the first half of the 19th century and the second half of the 19th century. Works of art These periods are distinguished by ideological pathos, problems, artistic techniques, and mood.
The authors whose works constitute the classics of Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century are very different. These include A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.
A.N. Ostrovsky is rightfully considered a reformer who brought a lot of new things to Russian drama. His innovation was reflected in the fact that he sharply turned the Russian theater towards life and its current social and moral problems. Ostrovsky was the first to turn to the life of the Russian merchants, described the life and customs of this huge layer of Russian society, and showed what problems exist in it.
In addition, it was Ostrovsky who became the “developer” of psychological drama, showing inner world heroes, the excitement of their souls. The plays of this playwright are filled with symbolism. All these features will be continued in the plays of Chekhov and playwrights of the 20th century.
I.S. Turgenev went down in the history of not only Russian, but also world literature as an unsurpassed psychologist and artist of words. This writer is known primarily as the author of the novels “Fathers and Sons”, “The Noble Nest”, “Rudin” and others. In addition, he is the creator of prose poems, full of lyricism and deep reflections on life, and other prose works.
Defining main feature his creative path, Turgenev said: “I tried, as far as I had the strength and ability, to conscientiously and impartially portray and embody what Shakespeare called the very image and pressure of time.”
The classic managed to show in his work the purity of love, the power of friendship, passionate faith in the future of his Motherland, confidence in the strength and courage of the Russian people. Creation true artist words suggest many discoveries, and Turgenev is proof of this.
All works of F.M. Dostoevsky is an artistic study of man, his ideal essence, his fate and future. Dostoevsky's man is a being who has lost his integrity; he is a man in discord, in disagreement with reality and with himself. We can say that Dostoevsky's hero is a restless hero who is constantly in search of himself. This path is full of suffering, blood, sin. But it's always - thinking man trying to know himself. In his denial of both God and life, Dostoevsky’s hero is much more honest than many “believers” and “respectable” people.
Dostoevsky's characters are connected by blood to God, although they often deny him. Without knowing it themselves, they often go the way of many evangelical saints, literally “suffering” their faith.
Dostoevsky's world is the world of the “humiliated and insulted.” The writer’s gaze is turned specifically to them, exposing the life and suffering of these people. In many ways, this is why F.M. Dostoevsky is called the “great Russian humanist.”
The depiction of a person’s spiritual growth, the “dialectics of the soul” is perhaps the most characteristic in the work of L.N. Tolstoy. This artistic feature can be traced throughout the writer’s entire creative path. Tolstoy writes in such a way that it is clearly visible: the more influence on a person secular society, the poorer his inner world, a person can achieve inner harmony in communication with the people, with nature. Tolstoy is convinced that class barriers have a depressing effect on character development.
Tolstoy's heroes are no strangers to contradictions; there is a persistent internal struggle within them, but their best spiritual qualities never betray them. The intuitive spiritual sensitivity of Natasha, the nobility of Pierre, the analytical mind and moral beauty of Prince Andrei, subtle soul Princess Marya - all this unites the heroes of War and Peace, despite the individuality of each character. We can say that everyone best heroes Tolstoy is united by the richness of his spiritual world and the desire for happiness.
All works by A.P. Chekhov's works are not only very realistic, but they also contain deep philosophical meaning. “The vulgarity of a vulgar person” is what the writer fought against all his life. Protest against everyday life and philistinism is the main thing in his works. Some of the writer’s heroes strive to break out of this “vicious circle” (three sisters from the play of the same name), others obediently plunge into this quagmire, gradually putting their soul to sleep (Doctor Startsev from “Ionych,” for example).
Chekhov's works are complex and very subtle. They contain several layers of meaning, which only an attentive and knowledgeable reader can reveal. All the works of this Russian writer are filled with many symbols, allowing one to reveal their full depth.
Thus, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is very diverse and vibrant. Every writer of that time is a real figure not only of Russian, but also of world literature. Despite all the differences, all these artists are united by a love for their homeland and a desire to improve the lives of Russian people. In addition, all writers used classical traditions, creating on their basis something of their own, new, which, in turn, also became a classic.