From 2800 BC e. until 2300 BC e. In the Cyclades, thirty tiny islands in the Aegean Sea in Greece, a style defined as "Cycladic art" originated. The characteristic features of this style were predominantly female figures with slightly bent knees, folded arms under the chest, and flat heads. The sizes of Cycladic art ranged from human-sized statues to small figurines no more than a few centimeters in height. It is reasonable to assume that idolatry was very widespread.

Cycladic sculptures at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens

Cycladic idol

"Flutist", National Archaeological Museum. Athens

"Violin", 2800 BC, British Museum, London

Cycladic art has become a source of inspiration for many contemporary artists who appreciate the restraint and sophistication of simple lines and geometry, and minimalism. The influence of Cycladic art can be seen in the works of Modigliani, especially his sculpture "Woman's Head", as well as in the work of other artists, including Picasso.

Amedeo Modigliani, "Head", 1910, National Gallery of Art, Washington

Cycladic figurine and Modigliani

Pablo Picasso, Woman, 1907, Picasso Museum, Paris

Giorgio de Chirico, Hector and Andromache

Henry Moore

Constantin Brancusi, Muse, 1912

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Hans Arp

Barbara Hepworth

Alberto Giacometti

Topic: Architecture

Topic: Architecture

Gothic style, artistic style, which was the final stage in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe (between the mid 12th and 15th to 16th centuries). The term "Gothic" was introduced in the Renaissance as a pejorative design of all medieval art, considered "barbaric". From the beginning of the 19th century, when for the art of the 10th - 12th centuries. The term Romanesque was adopted, the chronological framework of Gothic was limited, in it early, mature (high) and late phases were distinguished. Gothic style developed in countries where the Catholic Church dominated, and under its aegis feudal-church foundations were preserved in the ideology and culture of the Gothic era. Gothic art remained predominantly religious in purpose and religious in subject matter: it was correlated with eternity, with "higher" irrational forces. For Gothic, the symbolic-allegorical type of thinking and the conventionality of the artistic language are characteristic. From the Romanesque style, Gothic inherited the primacy of architecture in the arts and traditional types of buildings. A special place in the art of Gothic architecture was occupied by the cathedral - the highest example of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting (mainly stained-glass windows).

Gothic style, an artistic style that was the final stage in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe (between the mid-12th and 15-16th centuries). The term "Gothic" was introduced during the Renaissance as a derogatory designation for all medieval art that was considered "barbaric". From the beginning of the 19th century, when for art 10 - 12 centuries. the term Romanesque style was adopted, the chronological scope of Gothic was limited, and early, mature (high) and late phases were distinguished. Gothic developed in countries where the Catholic Church dominated, and under its auspices the feudal-ecclesiastical foundations were preserved in the ideology and culture of the Gothic era. Gothic art remained predominantly cult in purpose and religious in theme: it was correlated with eternity, with “higher” irrational forces. Gothic is characterized by a symbolic-allegorical type of thinking and a conventional artistic language. From the Romanesque style, Gothic inherited the primacy of architecture in the art system and traditional types buildings. The cathedral occupied a special place in Gothic art - the highest example of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting (mainly stained glass).

The space of the cathedral, incommensurable with man, the verticalism of its towers and arches, the subordination of the sculpture to dynamic architrable rhythms, the multicolored radiance of the stained-glass windows had a strong emotional impact on the believers. It is difficult to find suitable words to convey the impression of Gothic cathedrals. They are high and stretch to the sky with endless arrows of towers and turrets, wimpers, phials, pointed arches. But more striking is not so much the height, as the richness of the aspects that opens when you bypass the Cathedral around. Gothic cathedrals are not only high, but also very long: Chartres, for example, has a length of 130 meters, and the length of its transept is 64 meters, to get around it, it is required to pass at least half a kilometer. And from every point the cathedral looks in a new way. Unlike the Romanesque church, with its clear, easily visible forms, the Gothic cathedral is immense, often asymmetric and even heterogeneous in its parts: each of its facades with its portal is individual. The walls are not felt, they do not seem to be. Arches, galleries, towers, some platforms with arcades, huge windows, farther and farther - infinitely complex, elegant game of openwork forms. And all this space is inhabited: the cathedral inside and outside is inhabited by a mass of sculptures (in the Chartres Cathedral there are about ten thousand statues alone). They occupy not only portals and galleries, they can also be found on the roof, cornices, under the arches of chapels, on spiral staircases, they arise on drainpipes, on consoles. In short, the Gothic cathedral is a whole world. He absorbed the world of a medieval city. The development of Gothic art reflected also the cardinal changes in the structure of the medieval society: the beginning of the formation of centralized states, the growth and strengthening of cities, the nomination of secular forces - urban, commercial and craft, as well as court and knight circles. As the development of public consciousness, crafts and technology weakened the foundations of the medieval religious and dogmatic worldview, opportunities for cognition and aesthetic comprehension of the real world expanded; New architectural types and tectonic systems developed. Urban development and civil architecture were intensively developed. City architectural ensembles included cult and secular buildings, fortifications, bridges, wells. The main city square was often built up with houses with arcades, shopping and warehouses in the lower floors. From the square the main streets were divided; narrow facades of 2-, less than 3-storeyed houses with high, pediments were built along the streets and embankments. The cities were surrounded by powerful walls with richly decorated towers. The castles of kings and feudal lords gradually turned into complex complexes of serfs, palaces and religious buildings. Usually in the center of the city, dominating over its development, there was a castle or cathedral, becoming the focus of city life.In it along with the divine services, theological disputes were arranged, mysteries were played out, and meetings of townspeople took place. The cathedral was thought of as a kind of a collection of knowledge, a symbol of the universe, and its artistic system, combining solemn grandeur with passionate dynamics, the abundance of plastic motifs with a strict hierarchical system of their subordination, expressed not only the ideas of the medieval social hierarchy and the power of divine forces over man, but also growing self-awareness citizens, the creative greatness of the efforts of the human collective. The bold and complex frame structure of the Gothic cathedral, embodying the triumph of the bold engineering philosophy of man, allowed to overcome the massive nature of the Romanesque buildings, to facilitate the walls and arches, to create a dynamic unity of the internal space. In Gothic there is an enrichment and complication of the synthesis of arts, an expansion of the system of plots in which the medieval notions of the world were reflected. The only kind of fine art was sculpture, which received a rich cultural and artistic content and developed plastic forms. The stagnation and isolation of the Roman statues were replaced by the mobility of the figures, their appeal to each other and to the viewer. There was an interest in real natural forms, physical beauty and feelings of a person, a new treatment was given to the topics of motherhood, moral suffering, martyrdom and sacrificial firmness of a person. Organically intertwined in Gothic lyricism and tragic affects, sublime spirituality and social satire, fantastic grotesque and folklore, acute life observations. In the Gothic era, a book miniature flourished and altar painting appeared, the decorative art, connected with the high level of development of the craft craft, reached a high level. Gothic originated in Northern France (Ile-de-France) in the mid 12th century. and reached its heyday in the first half of the 13th century. Stone Gothic cathedrals received their classical form in France. As a rule, these are 3-5-nave basilicas with a transverse nave - a transept and a semicircular bypass of the choir ("de-ambulant"), to which radial chapels ("crown of chapels") adjoin. Their high and spacious interior is illuminated by the colored flickering of stained glass windows. The impression of an uncontrollable movement skyward and to the altar is created by rows of slender pillars, a powerful take-off of pointed pointed arches, a quickened rhythm of the arcades of the upper gallery (triforia). Due to the contrast of the high main and half-dark side naves, there is a picturesque richness of aspects, a sense of the boundlessness of space. The structural basis of the cathedral is a frame of pillars (in a mature Gothic - a bundle of columns) and leaning arches resting on them. The structure of the building consists of rectangular cells (grasses), limited by 4 pillars and 4 arches, which together with the arch-ribs form the skeleton of the cross vault, filled with lightweight small arches - formations. The lateral expansion of the arch of the main nave is transmitted by means of supporting arches (archways) to external pillars-buttresses. The walls released from the load in the intervals between the pillars are cut through the arched windows. Neutralization of the arch of the arch at the expense of bringing out the main structural elements allowed to create a sense of ease and spatial freedom of the interior. The 2-towered western facades of the French cathedrals with three "perspective" portals and a patterned round window ("rose") in the center combine the ascendance with the clear balance of the divisions. On the facades vary pointed arches and rich architectural and plastic and decorative details - patterned wimpergies, vials, crabs, etc. Statues on consoles in front of columns of portals and in their upper arched gallery, reliefs on socles and tympanums of portals, and also on capitals columns form a whole story system, which includes characters and episodes of Scripture, aplegorical images. The best works of Gothic plastics - the statues of the facades of the cathedrals in Chartres, Reims, Amiens, Strasbourg are imbued with spiritual beauty, sincerity and nobility of feelings.The decor is rhythmically organized and strictly subordinated to the architectural divisions of the facade , which determined the harmonious tectonics and proportions of the statues, the solemnity of their poses and gestures. Other parts of the temples were also decorated with reliefs, statues, plant ornament, images of fantastic animals; characterized by an abundance in the decor of secular motifs (scenes of work of artisans and peasants, grotesque and satirical images). The themes of stained-glass windows are also diverse, in the range of which red, blue and yellow tones are predominated. The existing Gothic frame system appeared in the church of the abbey of Saint-Denis (1137-44). Early Gothic also includes cathedrals in Lana, Paris, Chartres. The richness of the rhythm, the perfection of the architectural composition and the sculptural decoration are distinguished by the grandiose cathedrals of the mature Gothic in Reims and Amiens, as well as the chapel of Saint-Chapelle in Paris (1243-48) with numerous stained -glass windows. From the middle of the 13th century. majestic cathedrals were built in ancient European countries - in Germany (in Cologne), the Netherlands (in Utrecht), Spain (Burgos, 1221-1599), Great Britain (Westminster Abbey in London), Sweden (in Uppsala), Czech Republic ( choir and transept St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague), where Gothic building techniques received a peculiar local interpretation. Crusaders brought the principles of Gothic to Rhodes, Cyprus and Syria. In the late 13 - early 14 centuries. the construction of cathedrals in France was going through a crisis: the architectural forms became drier, the decor was more plentiful, the statues received the same underlined S-shaped bend and features of courtesy. From the 14th century. great importance was acquired by the city and monastery churches, castle and palace chapels. For the late ("flaming") Gothic is characterized by a whimsical, reminiscent of the flames of the pattern of window openings (the church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen). In secular urban architecture, mainly the compositions and decorative techniques of Gothic were used. On the main square of cities were built town halls with abundant decor, often with a tower (town hall in Saint-Cantin, 1351-1509). The castles turned into majestic palaces

The space of the cathedral, incommensurate with man, the verticalism of its towers and vaults, the subordination of sculpture to dynamic architectural rhythms, and the multicolored radiance of stained glass windows had a strong emotional impact on believers. It is difficult to find suitable words to convey the impression of Gothic cathedrals. They are tall and stretch towards the sky with endless arrows of towers and turrets, wimpergs, phials, pointed arches. But what is more striking is not so much the height as the richness of the aspects that open up when you walk around the cathedral. Gothic cathedrals are not only high, but also very extensive: Chartres, for example, is 130 meters long, and the length of its transept is 64 meters to go around it requires walking at least half a kilometer. And from every point the cathedral looks new. Unlike the Romanesque church, with its clear, easily visible forms, the Gothic cathedral is vast, often asymmetrical and even heterogeneous in its parts: each of its facades with its own portal is individual. The walls are not felt, it is as if they are not there. Arches, galleries, towers, some platforms with arcades, huge windows, further and further - an infinitely complex, elegant play of openwork forms. And all this space is inhabited: the cathedral, both inside and outside, is inhabited by a mass of sculptures (in the Chartres Cathedral there are about ten thousand statues alone). They occupy not only portals and galleries, they can also be found on the roof, cornices, under the vaults of chapels, on spiral staircases, they appear on drainpipes, on consoles. In a word, the Gothic cathedral is a whole world. It absorbed the world of the medieval city. The development of Gothic art also reflected fundamental changes in the structure of medieval society: the beginning of the formation of centralized states, the growth and strengthening of cities, the advancement of secular forces - urban, trade and craft, as well as courtly and knightly circles. With the development of social consciousness, crafts and technology, the foundations of the medieval religious-dogmatic worldview weakened, the possibilities of knowledge and aesthetic understanding of the real world expanded; New architectural types and tectonic systems took shape. Urban planning and civil architecture developed intensively. Urban architectural ensembles included religious and secular buildings, fortifications, bridges, and wells. The main city square was often lined with houses with arcades, trade and warehouse premises on the lower floors. The main streets radiated from the square; narrow facades of 2-, less often 3-story houses with high gables lined the streets and embankments. The cities were surrounded by powerful walls with richly decorated passage towers. The castles of kings and feudal lords gradually turned into complex complexes of fortresses, palaces and places of worship. Usually in the center of the city, dominating its development, there was a castle or cathedral, which became the center of city life. In it, along with divine services, theological debates were held, mysteries were played, and meetings of townspeople took place. The cathedral was thought of as a kind of body of knowledge, a symbol of the Universe, and its artistic structure, combining solemn grandeur with passionate dynamics, an abundance of plastic motifs with a strict hierarchical system of their subordination, expressed not only the ideas of medieval social hierarchy and the power of divine forces over man, but also growing self-awareness citizens, the creative greatness of the efforts of the human team. The bold and complex frame structure of the Gothic cathedral, which embodied the triumph of daring human engineering, made it possible to overcome the massiveness of Romanesque buildings, lighten the walls and vaults, and create a dynamic unity of the internal space. In Gothic there is an enrichment and complication of the synthesis of arts, an expansion of the system of plots, which reflected medieval ideas about the world. The main type of fine art was sculpture, which received rich ideological and artistic content and developed plastic forms. The rigidity and isolation of Romanesque statues was replaced by the mobility of the figures, their appeal to each other and to the viewer. Interest arose in real natural forms, in physical beauty and human feelings, and the themes of motherhood, moral suffering, martyrdom and the sacrificial fortitude of man received a new interpretation. Gothic organically intertwined lyricism and tragic affects, sublime spirituality and social satire, fantastic grotesque and folklore, sharp life observations. In the Gothic era, book miniatures flourished and altar painting appeared, and decorative art, associated with the high level of development of guild crafts, reached a high rise. Gothic originated in Northern France (Ile-de-France) in the mid-12th century. and reached its peak in the 1st half of the 13th century. Stone Gothic cathedrals received their classical form in France. As a rule, these are 3-5-nave basilicas with a transverse nave - transept and a semicircular choir ("ambulatory"), to which radial chapels are adjacent ("crown of chapels"). Their high and spacious interior is illuminated by the colorful shimmer of stained glass windows. The impression of uncontrollable movement upward and towards the altar is created by rows of slender pillars, the powerful rise of pointed pointed arches, and the accelerated rhythm of the arcades of the upper gallery (triforium). Thanks to the contrast of the high main and semi-dark side naves, a picturesque richness of aspects and a feeling of the infinity of space arises. The structural basis of the cathedral is a frame of pillars (in mature Gothic - a bunch of columns) and pointed arches resting on them. The structure of the building is made up of rectangular cells (grasses), delimited by 4 pillars and 4 arches, which, together with arched ribs, form the skeleton of a cross vault filled with lightweight small vaults - strippings. The lateral thrust of the arch of the main nave is transmitted with the help of supporting arches (arc butanes) to the external pillars-buttresses. The walls, freed from the load, are cut through with arched windows in the spaces between the pillars. Neutralizing the expansion of the vault by moving the main structural elements outside made it possible to create a feeling of lightness and spatial freedom of the interior. The 2-tower western facades of French cathedrals with 3 “perspective” portals and a patterned round window (“rose”) in the center combine upward aspiration with a clear balance of divisions. On the facades there are pointed arches and rich architectural, plastic and decorative details - patterned vimpergs, phials, crabs, etc. Statues on consoles in front of the columns of the portals and in their upper arched gallery, reliefs on the plinths and tympanums of the portals, as well as on the capitals columns form an integral plot system, which includes characters and episodes of the Holy Scriptures, aplegoric images. The best works of Gothic plastic art - statues of the facades of the cathedrals in Chartres, Reims, Amiens, Strasbourg - are imbued with spiritual beauty, sincerity and nobility of feelings. The decor is rhythmically organized and strictly subordinate to the architectural divisions of the facade, which determined the harmonious tectonics and proportions of the statues, the solemnity of their poses and gestures. Other parts of the temples were also decorated with reliefs, statues, floral designs, and images of fantastic animals; The decoration is characterized by an abundance of secular motifs (scenes of the work of artisans and peasants, grotesque and satirical images). The theme of stained glass windows was also varied, the range of which was dominated by red, blue and yellow tones. The established Gothic frame system appeared in the church of the Abbey of Saint-Denis (1137-44). Early Gothic also includes cathedrals in Laon, Paris, and Chartres. The grandiose mature Gothic cathedrals in Reims and Amiens, as well as the Sainte-Chapelle chapel in Paris (1243-48) with numerous stained glass windows, are distinguished by the richness of rhythm, perfection of architectural composition and sculptural decoration. From the middle of the 13th century. majestic cathedrals were built in ancient European countries - in Germany (in Cologne), the Netherlands (in Utrecht), Spain (in Burgos, 1221-1599), Great Britain (Westminster Abbey in London), Sweden (in Uppsala), the Czech Republic (choir and transept St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague), where Gothic construction techniques received a unique local interpretation. The Crusaders brought the principles of Gothic to Rhodes, Cyprus and Syria. At the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. The construction of cathedrals in France was experiencing a crisis: the architectural forms became drier, the decor was more abundant, the statues received the same emphasized S-shaped bend and features of courtliness. From the 14th century City and monastery hall churches, castle and palace chapels acquired great importance. Late (“flaming”) Gothic is characterized by a whimsical pattern of window openings reminiscent of flames (the Church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen). In secular urban architecture, mainly Gothic compositions and decorative techniques were used. Town halls with lavish decorations, often with a tower, were built on the main square of cities (town hall in Saint-Quentin, 1351-1509). Castles were transformed into majestic palaces with rich interior decoration (the complex of the papal palace in Avignon), mansions ("hotels") of wealthy citizens were built. In late Gothic, sculptural altars in interiors became widespread, combining painted and painted wooden sculpture and tempera painting on wooden boards. A new emotional structure of images has emerged, characterized by dramatic (often exalted) expression, especially in the scenes of the suffering of Christ and the saints, conveyed with merciless truthfulness. Paintings on secular subjects appeared (in the papal palace in Avignon, 14th-15th centuries). In miniatures (books of hours) there was a desire for the spiritualized humanity of images, for the transfer of space and volume. The best examples of French Gothic decorative art include small ivory sculpture, silver reliquaries, Limoges enamel, tapestries and carved furniture. Germany flourished

The art of Arab countries is complex in its origins. In Southern Arabia they date back to the cultures of the Sabaean, Minaan and Himyarite states (1st millennium BC - 6th century AD), associated with the Mediterranean and East. Africa. Ancient traditions can be traced in the architecture of the tower-shaped houses of Hadhramaut and the multi-story buildings of Yemen, the facades of which are decorated with colored relief patterns. In Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the styles of medieval Arab art were also formed on a local basis, experiencing some influence from Iranian, Byzantine and other cultures.

Architecture. The main religious building of Islam became the mosque, where the followers of the prophet gathered for prayer. Mosques consisting of a fenced courtyard and a colonnade (which laid the foundation for the “courtyard” or “column” type of mosque) in the 1st half of the 7th century. were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). The columnar type remained the main one for a long time in the monumental religious architecture of Arab countries (mosques: Ibn Tulun in Cairo, 9th century; Mutawakkila in Samarra, 9th century; Hassan in Rabat and Koutoubia in Marrakesh, both 12th century; Great Mosque in Algeria, 11th century, etc.) and influenced the Muslim architecture of Iran, the Caucasus, Wed. Asia, India. Domed buildings also developed in architecture, an early example of which is the octagonal Qubbat Al-Sakhra mosque in Jerusalem (687-691). Later, various religious and memorial buildings are completed with domes, most often crowning mausoleums over the graves of famous people.

From the 13th century until the beginning of the 16th century. the architecture of Egypt and Syria was closely interconnected. Large fortress construction was carried out: citadels in Cairo, Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. In the monumental architecture of this time, the spatial principle that dominated the previous stage (the courtyard mosque) gave way to grandiose architectural volumes: towering towers rise above the smooth surface of powerful walls and large portals with deep niches. tall drums supporting domes. Majestic four-aiwan buildings are being built (see. Ivan) type (known before in Iran): maristan (hospital) of Qalaun (13th century) and the Hassan mosque (14th century) in Cairo, mosques and madrassas (theological schools) in Damascus and other cities of Syria. Numerous domed mausoleums are being built, sometimes forming a picturesque ensemble (Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo, 15-16 centuries). To decorate walls outside and inside, along with carvings, inlay with multi-colored stones is widely used. In Iraq in the 15th-16th centuries. colored glaze and gilding are used in the decoration (mosques: Musa al-Kadim in Baghdad, Hussein in Karbala, Imam Ali in Najaf).

It experienced high prosperity in the 10th-15th centuries. Arabic architecture of the Maghreb and Spain. In large cities (Rabat, Marrakech, Fez, etc.) kasbahs were built - citadels fortified by powerful walls with gates and towers, and medinas - trading and craft quarters. The large columned mosques of the Maghreb with multi-tiered, square minarets are distinguished by an abundance of intersecting naves, a wealth of carved ornaments (mosques in Tlemcen, Taza, etc.) and are magnificently decorated with carved wood, marble and mosaics of multi-colored stones, like numerous madrassas 13-14 centuries in Marocco. In Spain, along with the mosque in Cordoba, other outstanding monuments of Arab architecture have been preserved: the La Giralda minaret, erected in Seville by the architect Jeber in 1184-96, the gate to Toledo, the palace Alhambra in Granada - a masterpiece of Arab architecture and decorative art of the 13th-15th centuries. Arab architecture influenced the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of Spain (Mudejar style), Sicily and other Mediterranean countries.

Decorative, applied and fine arts. In Arab art, the principle of decorativeness, characteristic of the artistic thinking of the Middle Ages, was vividly embodied, giving rise to the richest ornament, special in each region of the Arab world, but connected by general patterns of development. Arabesque, dating back to ancient motifs, is a new type of pattern created by the Arabs, in which mathematical rigor of construction is combined with free artistic imagination. Epigraphic ornamentation also developed - calligraphically executed inscriptions included in the decorative pattern.

Ornament and calligraphy, which were widely used in architectural decoration (stone carving, wood carving, knocking), are also characteristic of applied art, which reached its peak and especially fully expressed the decorative specificity of Arab artistic creativity. Ceramics were decorated with colorful patterns: glazed household dishes in Mesopotamia (centers - Raqqa, Samarra); vessels painted with golden luster of different shades, made in Fatimid Egypt; Spanish-Moorish luster ceramics of the 14th and 15th centuries, which had a great influence on European applied art. Arabic patterned silk fabrics - Syrian, Egyptian, Moorish - were also world famous; The Arabs also made pile carpets. Bronze artefacts (bowls, jugs, incense burners and other utensils) are decorated with the finest embossing, engraving and inlay made of silver and gold; Products from the 12th to 14th centuries are distinguished by their special craftsmanship. Mosul in Iraq and some craft centers in Syria. Syrian glass coated with the finest enamel painting and Egyptian products made of rock crystal, ivory, and expensive wood, decorated with exquisite carved patterns, were famous.

Art in Islamic countries developed in complex interactions with religion. Mosques, as well as the holy book Koran, were decorated with geometric, floral and epigraphic patterns. However, Islam, unlike Christianity and Buddhism, refused to widely use fine art to promote religious ideas. Moreover, in the so-called Reliable hadiths, legitimized in the 9th century, contain a prohibition on depicting living beings and especially humans. Theologians of the 11th-13th centuries. (Ghazali and others) declared these images to be the gravest sin. However, artists throughout the Middle Ages depicted people and animals, real and mythological scenes. In the first centuries of Islam, while theology had not yet developed its own aesthetic canons, the abundance of realistically interpreted paintings and sculptures in the Umayyad palaces testified to the strength of pre-Islamic artistic traditions. Subsequently, figurativeness in Arab art is explained by the presence of essentially anti-clerical aesthetic views. For example, in the “Epistle of the Brothers of Purity” (10th century), the art of artists is defined “as the imitation of the images of existing objects, both artificial and natural, both people and animals.”

Mosque in Damascus. 8th century Interior. Syrian Arab Republic.

Mausoleums at the Mamluk cemetery near Cairo. 15 - beginning 16th centuries United Arab Republic.

Painting. Fine art experienced a high flourishing in Egypt in the 10th-12th centuries: images of people and genre scenes adorned the walls of buildings in the city of Fustat, ceramic dishes and vases (master Saad and others), and were woven into the pattern of bone and wood carvings (panel 11 from the Fatimid palace in Cairo, etc.), as well as linen and silk fabrics; bronze vessels were made in the form of figures of animals and birds. Similar phenomena took place in the art of Syria and Mesopotamia of the 10th-14th centuries: court and other scenes are included in the exquisite embossed and inlaid ornament of bronze items, in the pattern of paintings on glass and ceramics.

The visual element was less developed in the art of the countries of the Arab West. However, here too, decorative sculpture in the form of animals, patterns with motifs of living creatures, as well as miniatures were created (manuscript “History of Bayad and Riyadh,” 13th century, Vatican Library). Arabic art as a whole was a bright, original phenomenon in the history of world artistic culture of the Middle Ages. His influence extended throughout the Muslim world and went far beyond its borders.

4. Architecture as an art form

Architecture is one of the oldest forms of art, expressing in religious and public buildings the worldview of the people in a specific historical era, a certain artistic style. ARCHITECTURE (Latin architecture, Greek architecton - builder), architecture - buildings, other structures or their complexes that form a material , an artistically organized environment for human life. Also, the art of shaping this spatial environment, creating a new reality that has functional significance, brings benefits to humans and provides aesthetic pleasure. The term covers the design of the exterior of a structure; organization of internal space; selection of materials for external and internal use, design of natural and artificial lighting systems, as well as engineering support systems; electricity and water supply; decorative design. Each of the buildings has a specific purpose: for life or work, recreation or study, trade or transport. All of them are durable, comfortable and necessary for people - these are their mandatory properties.

Types of architecture

There are three main types of architecture:

The architecture of three-dimensional structures. It includes religious and fortified buildings, residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops, etc.), industrial buildings (plants, factories, etc.);

Landscape architecture related to the organization of garden and park space (squares, boulevards and parks with “small” architecture - gazebos, fountains, bridges, stairs)

Urban planning, covering the construction of new cities and towns and the reconstruction of old urban areas.

Architecture styles

Architecture is closely connected with the life of society, its views and ideology. The basis of ancient Greek architecture is the idea of ​​a perfect, physically and spiritually developed person. Ancient architects built all their buildings according to the proportions of the human body, embodying harmony, opposition to the elements of nature, majestic clarity and humanity. “The style of the era” (Romanesque style, Gothic, etc.) arises mainly in those historical periods when the perception of works of art is different comparative inflexibility, when it still easily adapts to changes in style.

The great styles - Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, classicism, empire / variation of late classicism / - are usually recognized as equal and equivalent. The development of styles is asymmetrical, which is externally expressed in the fact that each style gradually changes from simple to complex; however, it returns from the complex to the simple only as a result of a leap. Therefore, changes in styles occur in different ways: slowly - from simple to complex, and abruptly - from complex to simple. The Romanesque style was replaced by the Gothic style for more than a hundred years - from the middle of the 12th century. until the middle of the 13th century. simple forms of Romanesque architecture gradually transform into a complicated Gothic style. Within the Gothic style, the Renaissance then matures. With the emergence of the Renaissance, a period of ideological quest began again, the emergence of an integral system of worldview. And at the same time, the process of gradual complication and disintegration of the simple begins again: the Renaissance becomes more complex, and behind it comes the Baroque. Baroque, in turn, becoming more complex, transforms into rococo in some types of art (architecture, painting, applied art). Then again there is a return to the simple, and as a result of the leap, classicism comes to replace baroque, the development of which in some countries has replaced the empire style.

The reasons for changing pairs of styles are as follows: reality does not choose a style among existing ones, but creates a new style and transforms the old one. The created style is the primary style, and the transformed style is the secondary style.

Architecture of the native land

Architecture of the Grodno region

Borisoglebskaya (Kolozhskaya) Church, a monument of ancient Russian architecture of the second half of the 12th century.

Mir Castle, included in the UNESCO List, Lida Castle (XIV–XV centuries)

Architecture of the Minsk region

Archcathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary (second half of the 17th – early 18th centuries)

Church of Saints Simeon and Helen (Red Church) - a monument of neo-Gothic architecture with Art Nouveau features (1908 – 1910)

Nesvizh palace and park complex (XVII–XVIII centuries)

Bernardine Church in the village of Budslav, Myadel district, a monument of Baroque architecture (XVIII century)

Architecture of the Vitebsk region

St. Sophia Cathedral, an architectural monument of the 11th – 18th centuries.

Spaso-Evfrosinevskaya Church, a monument of ancient Russian architecture (1152 – 1161). Unique frescoes have been preserved on its walls and columns.

Literature:

1. Gerchuk Yu.L. Fundamentals of artistic literacy. –M., 1998

2. Danilov V.N. Methods of teaching fine arts and artistic work. Mn., 2004

3. Kasterin N.P. educational drawing. –M.: Education, 1996

4. Lazuka B. Slounik terminology on architecture, revealed decaratine-practical art. – Mn., 2001

5. Nemensky B.M. Pedagogy of art. –M.: Education, 2007

Architecture, design, decorative and applied arts are utilitarian artistic forms of creativity. That is, they solve utilitarian problems - movement, organization of life, city, home, various types of human and social life. In contrast to artistic creativity (fine arts, literature, theater, cinema, poetry, sculpture), which create only spiritual, cultural and aesthetic values ​​that do not have utilitarian meaning.

Design differs from arts and crafts by technological mass production as opposed to craft in Dec. applied arts. Architecture and design, being related concepts, differ only in spatial scale; city, microdistrict, complex, building in architecture and environment, streets, interior, industrial design, art. design in “design”, but for example, interior and landscaping is the subject of both architecture and design.

Design and architecture are utilitarian and artistic activities to create a subject-spatial environment. Architecture is an older concept, design is more modern, but the differences between them are minimal, often not distinguishable.

The designer creates a landscape, a square, an element of the urban environment - a kiosk, a fountain, a bus stop, a clock lamp, a lobby, a room, furniture, an office, an interior.

The interior spaces are shaped by the architect, and the saturation of the designer is often done by one or the other; this practically reveals the closeness, and often indistinguishability, of the profession of architect. and designer.

Architecture and design are related to expressive arts, which do not directly reflect reality, but create it. Unlike fine arts(painting, graphics, literature, theater, sculpture) reflecting material and spiritual reality in an artistic way.

Lecture 1. Design methodology

1. The relationship between the social and ideological state of society and design.

Contemporary practice of "new eclecticism"

2. Creative method- professional method - “individual manner”.

Interaction of methods at different stages of creativity.

Interaction of method and stages of professional activity

Various examples

3. Subjective and objective in the creative process.

1. Any activity, and to a greater extent creative, such as design, is connected and by its means reflects the social organization of society, cultural development, aesthetic ideals……. Egypt reflects the complete deification of the objective world and architecture, the Middle Ages, Objection, Classicism, Constructivism. In the 20th century, we experienced the collapse of historicism, the birth of modernism and constructivism in the art of architecture and design. The rejection of traditional forms of compositions of details, the principle of free planning was perceived as a revolution and as if reflecting a social revolution, but in the West there was no revolution, but a related movement was born, which was called the modern movement, there was a real connection between them (the Holland Style Group and the leader of constructivism in Russia). However, this revolution was prepared by new technologies and materials (reinforced concrete) beam trusses and new artistic movements - cubism, futurism, expressionism, but also by social upheavals (revolutions, World War I), new philosophical movements (socialism, communism, national socialism -fascism)…………., crisis of bourgeois morality. They talked a lot about truthfulness as opposed to bourgeois decoration and decorativism. Changes in the subject and spatial environment were prepared both by the development of philosophical and scientific thought and new artistic abstract movements and the development of technology, but also by social upheavals, which gave a certain ideological pathos and formed and developed a life-building principle - which said that it is possible to change reality based on artistic and spatial ideas and concepts already formed ideas of the modern movement and constructivism

Art Nouveau as a fashionable movement of the new bourgeoisie and merchants (Morozov's mansion).

Opposite the House of Commune, the idea of ​​social. cities, the socialization of everyday life as a manifestation of the ideas of socialism in the objective world. The utopian idea that by changing the environment one can change the person himself.

Of course, the objective world of environment and architecture reflects by its means the economic system and the level of development of society and the ideology and value system dominant in society, but this dependence is not direct but complex, often the ideas of art for art’s sake are adapted and rethought to objective realities.

Mighty fortresses were erected: Frederiksborg in Hillered (1602-1625), Kronborg in Helsingor, etc., which included a castle, office premises, warehouses and barracks, and were surrounded by ramparts, ditches and bastions. The king himself was well versed in architecture and supervised the construction of structures. Planned development in the 17th century. completely changed the appearance of Copenhagen and significantly expanded its size. A palace, a military port, and a Renaissance Exchange were built or founded under Christian IV (1619-1625). Architects L. and X. van Steenwinkel were given the task of building it as a “temple of the new economic policy.” As a result of building enthusiasm, Copenhagen turned into a city in the 17th century. to one of the most beautiful capitals in Europe. Different stylistic lines coexist here: Gothic, mannerism, emerging baroque.
In Sweden, this period was also marked by the refurbishment of old buildings and the construction of new ones. The castles of Gripsholm, Vadstena and Uppsala, palaces, town halls and private houses in the cities are built in the Renaissance style. Church construction, on the contrary, is undergoing a decline.
The buildings of that time were matched by rich interior decoration, more luxurious in Sweden, more restrained in Denmark: chests-benches, secretaries, cabinets. Wooden furniture and panels were covered with complex paintings or carvings of biblical and secular subjects, and decorated with items made of expensive stones and metals, earthenware, and wood. The walls were hung with original secular tapestries, a mass of portraits, and paintings. Sculptures, often entire groups, appear in halls, courtyards and gardens, usually in an ancient mythological spirit. A special fashion has developed for painted and figured stove tiles, as well as stoves made of iron and cast iron, with cast carvings.
Engineering and construction innovations of that time included water supply: pipes with taps and complex fountains appeared in castles and palaces. Both individual craftsmen and entire workshops were engaged in decorating palaces and castles. The combination of Western European influence, especially from the Netherlands and Germany, and local traditions formed examples of unique style.
During this period, art was primarily of an applied nature. As an important part of the interior, it served to express and consolidate prestige. Hence, for example, the extraordinary proliferation at that time of magnificent epitaphs, ceremonial portraits (sculptures and paintings), and allegorical images.
The most impressive and prestigious art form was sculpture, which flourished later with the establishment of the Baroque. Most of the sculptors were foreigners, mainly carrying out orders from the king. The “Royal Builder” Hans Steenwinkel supervised the creation of a number of sculptural
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positions for fountains. Hendrik de Keyser made sculptures in Amsterdam by order of Christian IV. The famous Neptune fountain in Frederiksborg was made by the Dutchman Adrian de Vries (1546-1626).
Bas-reliefs, mainly tombstones, but also decorative, became widespread.
Interest in the depiction of a person, in particular in family portraits, became one of the features of painting of this period. Often portraits were still made according to old models: static, conditional, without psychological characteristics. Ceremonial images of sovereigns and members of their families have come into fashion - solemn, with symbols of power - since the 17th century. were most often designed in the manner of classicism. The period is also characterized by an abundance of portraits of urban patricians and scientists; they all display black robes and the signs of their occupation. Perhaps the earliest portrait of a burgher scientist is the image of the humanist Wedel (1578). The portrait of the Rodman family from Flensborg (1591) is expressive, where he, his two wives and 14 children stand around a crucifix. Rodman himself, one of his wives and four children, who are already deceased, are marked with a cross above their heads. Some other family portraits and epitaphs of burghers were made in the same manner. The union of the dead and the living undoubtedly reflects the ideas of that time about the unity of life and death, about the inextricable connection of the two worlds. The authors of these portraits are unknown; most of the portraits of burghers and provincial nobility were made anonymously. On the contrary, the royal family and nobility resorted to the services of famous masters. About 200 portraits of royal and noble persons were painted by the Dutchman Jacob van Doordt, and many by the Dutchman Joost Verheyden.
Gradually, a new type of artist is emerging in Denmark - an educated and cultured person, quite wealthy and close to humanist scientists, often a hereditary artist and collector. This was, in particular, the prolific portrait painter, the Dutchman Karel van Mander, whose self-portrait with his wife and mother-in-law is a rare image of an intellectual artist for that time. About the same was the Isaacs artistic family, which made a significant contribution to the culture of the Danish Renaissance; its founder is a descendant of an emigrant from Amsterdam, an art dealer, and one of his grandchildren is the humanist and historian Johann Pontanus. Among the artists there were special specialists in historical paintings, church painting, etc., but the majority had a broad specialization.
An important type of decorative art at that time were tapestries, both imported and local, for which sketches were made by prominent
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artists, and production was carried out in foreign or Danish palace workshops.
In the decor of that time, as already noted, wood carving, traditional and developed in Scandinavia, occupied a prominent place. In churches, altars were decorated with carvings, which depicted scenes from the Bible, as well as scenes from classical authors characteristic of the Danish Renaissance. Carvings with Gothic and Renaissance ornaments with secular themes decorated furniture in homes. In Norway and Finland, great success was achieved in folk wooden carvings, which decorated provincial buildings and household items.

The variety of types of art allows us to aesthetically master the world in all its complexity and richness. There are no major and minor arts, but each type has its own strengths and weaknesses in comparison with other arts.

Architecture. When a person learned to make tools, his home was no longer a hole or a nest, but an expedient building that gradually acquired an aesthetic appearance. Construction became architecture.

Architecture is the formation of reality according to the laws of beauty when creating buildings and structures designed to serve human needs for housing and public spaces. Architecture creates a closed utilitarian-artistic mastered world, delimited from nature, opposed to the elemental environment and allowing people to use humanized space in accordance with their material and spiritual needs. The architectural image expresses the purpose of the building and the artistic concept of the world and personality, a person’s idea of ​​himself and the essence of his era.

Architecture - art and buildings have a certain style. Lomonosov, defining the features of architecture, wrote that architectural art “will erect buildings that are comfortable for habitation, beautiful for vision, and durable for longevity.” Thanks to architecture, an integral part of “second nature” arises - the material environment that is created by human labor and in which his life and activities take place.

The forms of architecture are determined: 1) naturally (depending on geographical and climatic conditions, on the nature of the landscape, intensity sunlight, seismic safety); 2) socially (depending on the character social order, aesthetic ideals, utilitarian and artistic needs of society; architecture is more closely connected with the development of productive forces and the development of technology than other arts).

Applied arts. One of the oldest and still developing types of artistic creativity is applied art. It is carried out in everyday objects created according to the laws of beauty. Applied art is things that surround and serve us, creating our everyday life and comfort, things made not only as useful, but also as beautiful, having a style and artistic image that expresses their purpose and carries general information about the type of life, about the era , about the worldview of the people. The aesthetic impact of applied art is daily, hourly, every minute. Works of applied art can rise to the heights of art.

Applied art is national by its very nature, it is born from the customs, habits, beliefs of the people and is directly close to their production activities and life. The pinnacle of applied art is jewelry making, which retains its independent significance and is developing today.

Decorative arts. Decorative art is the aesthetic development of the environment surrounding a person, the artistic design of “second nature” created by man: buildings, structures, premises, squares, streets, roads. This art invades everyday life, creating beauty and convenience in and around residential and public spaces. Works of decorative art can be a door handle and fence, stained glass window glass and a lamp, which enter into synthesis with architecture.

Decorative art incorporates the achievements of other arts, especially painting and sculpture. Painting first existed in the form of rock and wall paintings and only later was formed as easel painting. Monumental painting on the wall - fresco (the name comes from its technique: “al fresco” - painting with paints on wet plaster) is a genre of decorative art.

Painting- depiction on a plane of pictures of the real world, transformed by the creative imagination of the artist; isolating the elementary and most popular aesthetic feeling - the sense of color - into a special sphere and turning it into one of the means of artistic exploration of the world.

In ancient painting, the relationship between the phenomena depicted was not so much spatial as semantic. On the island of Cham (Australia, Gulf of Carpentaria), in an ancient cave on a white wall, kangaroos are painted in black and red paint, pursued by thirty-two hunters, of which the third in order is twice as tall as the others, as it represents the leader.

Ancient Egyptian artists, for the sake of semantic emphasis, also depicted the figure of a military leader several times larger than the figures of his warriors. These were the first compositional accents of painting that did not know perspective. In ancient times, graphics and painting were close not only to each other, but also to literature. Ancient Chinese and ancient Egyptian painting and graphics are related by narrative. The picture is a chain of events, a story unfolded in a number of figures. Already at this early stage of development, painting expresses on the plane different points of view on the subject. Artists of Ancient Egypt painted both eyes on a face depicted in profile, and painters of Southern Melanesia depict planes hidden from direct view: a disk is drawn above a person’s head, indicating the back of the head, or a double face, conveying a “circular gaze.” The ancient artist did not perceive the beauty of the landscape.

The ancient artist knows well the anatomy of not only animals, but also humans. Gymnastics, music and fine arts are involved in the education of a warrior, sensing the beauty and strength of the human body, which has deep socio-historical roots. The Olympic Games and sculptural images of heroes perform similar social and aesthetic functions: raising the warriors needed by slave-owning democracy - the defenders of Hellas and the miners of slaves for its economic development.

Medieval painting gave a conventionally flat image of the world. The composition emphasized not the distance of the object from the eye of the observer, but its meaning and significance. These same features are inherent in Russian icon painting. The Middle Ages did not yet know the anatomical difference between an adult and a child: in the paintings, the Christ Child is an adult in reduced size. Medieval fine art peers into the inner world of man and penetrates into the depths of his spirit. The cult of the beauty of the naked body is being replaced by a fashion for clothing that drapes the body and falls to the floor. A monastic robe is characteristic, concealing the outlines of a person’s figure, making his appearance shapeless and sexless.

The Renaissance revives the cult of the naked body, emphasizing not only its beauty and power, but also its sensual appeal. The joy of being, the spiritual and sensual pleasure of life shines through in paintings that glorify the beauty of the female body, its Giorgionean chastity, Rubensian splendor, Titianian earthly and heavenly beauty, and El-Grecian spirituality.

Painting plays a leading role in the system of art forms of the Renaissance. Artists affirm the universal human significance of painting, which, like literature, does not require translation into another language. Leonardo da Vinci wrote: “... if the poet serves the mind by the ear, then the painter - by the eye, more worthy of feeling... A painting, so much more useful and beautiful, you will like it more... Choose a poet who would describe the beauty of a woman to her lover, and choose a painter who would depict her, and you will see where nature will incline the enamored judge.”

Geniuses always appear in the most necessary areas of social practice. And it is no coincidence that the Renaissance produced such great artists as Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Titian.

The anti-ascetic, anti-scholastic pathos of the era, the impulse for the richness of life, for its spiritual and sensual joys, find full expression precisely in painting (“Spring” by Botticelli). Artists convey the age-related anatomy of a person (the child in the arms of the Madonna Litta by Leonardo da Vinci is not a dwarf, but really a baby), they reveal the dynamic anatomy of a person at different rates and sharpness, angles, directions of movement (the frescoes of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo).

During the Renaissance, detailed principles of perspective-spatial composition developed. The arrangement of the figures in the picture revealed their life relationships. The Renaissance discovered the laws of perspective or, even more broadly, the free use of space. The idea of ​​perspective was developed by Brunelleschi and Alberti, who taught how to organize space in a painting according to the principles of a truncated pyramid formed by rays coming from objects to our eye. The mastery of space is evidenced not only by the construction of perspective (for example, in Leonardo da Vinci’s “The Last Supper”), but also by the creation of “dematerialized” space.

In the 19th century The previously outlined process of demarcation between painting and graphics is being completed. The specificity of graphics is linear relationships, reproduction of the shape of objects, transmission of their illumination, the relationship between light and shadow. Painting captures the relationships of the colors of the world; in color and through color it expresses the essence of objects, their aesthetic value, verifies their social purpose, their correspondence to the environment. The process of demarcation between painting and graphics was completed by the Impressionists. They convey nothing outside of color, everything linear is secondary for them; It is not the drawing, but the color relationships of the depicted objects that become the main carrier of aesthetic meaning. Painting gains independence from drawing, which was previously its main goal, and approaches music, moving away from literature.

In the 20th century The nature of painting changes dramatically. It is influenced by photography, cinema, television, the breadth and variety of impressions of a modern person who perceives reality from great heights, and at high speeds, and from unexpected angles, and from variable, moving points of view. The intellectual and psychological world of man deepens. The advent of photography and its mastery of color posed new challenges for painting. Photography can now simply capture an object as a keepsake. In the painting of the twentieth century. The role of the subjective principle increases, the importance of personal vision, individual perception of life becomes more acute (remember Grabar’s “March Snow”).

The meaning-forming elements of painting are a processed flat base, regular edges of the picture and a frame (these elements were absent in rock painting). In modern times, painting appeared that did not depict deep space and was not framed. Its analogue was a sculpture without a pedestal - suspended or standing on the ground. Parts of the pictorial plane, the place of the image of the object on it, have a symbolic meaning. In Munch’s portrait, the self-absorbed subject is positioned slightly to the side in an empty space. This creates an artistic and semantic effect of sadness and alienation, which is enhanced by the pose of the person being portrayed.

Architecture. When a person learned to make tools, his home was no longer a hole or a nest, but an expedient building that gradually acquired an aesthetic appearance. Construction became architecture.

Architecture is the formation of reality according to the laws of beauty when creating buildings and structures designed to serve human needs for housing and public spaces. Architecture creates a closed utilitarian-artistic mastered world, delimited from nature, opposed to the elemental environment and allowing people to use humanized space in accordance with their material and spiritual needs. The architectural image expresses the purpose of the building and the artistic concept of the world and personality, a person’s idea of ​​himself and the essence of his era.

Architecture - art and buildings have a certain style. Thanks to architecture, an integral part of “second nature” arises - the material environment that is created by human labor and in which his life and activities take place.

Architecture tends to be ensemble-like. Its structures skillfully fit into the natural (natural) or urban (city) landscape. For example, the building of Moscow State University fits well into the landscape of the Sparrow Hills, from where it offers views of the capital and the receding distances of the Central Russian plain. The former CMEA building (now the City Hall building), resembling an open book, is successfully integrated into the urban landscape of Moscow.

The forms of architecture are determined: 1) naturally (depending on geographical and climatic conditions, the nature of the landscape, the intensity of sunlight, seismic safety); 2) socially (depending on the nature of the social system, aesthetic ideals, utilitarian and artistic needs of society; architecture is more closely connected than other arts with the development of productive forces, with the development of technology).

Architecture is art, engineering, and construction, which requires enormous concentration of collective efforts and material resources (St. Isaac's Cathedral, for example, was built by half a million people over forty years). Architectural works are created to last forever. The creator of the “stone book” and its “reader” are the people. A work of architecture is a huge stone symphony, a mighty creation of the people, like the Iliad, an amazing result of the combination of all the forces of an entire era.

Even in ancient times, architecture interacted with monumental sculpture, painting, mosaics, and icons. In this synthesis, architecture dominates. Sometimes literature, in the form of a quotation from a literary text, enters into a relationship of subordination with architecture and sculpture. There is also a known case of the subordinate interaction of music with architecture: one of the Burmese pagodas is hung with bells, which create a silver cloud of the lightest and most gentle ringing around the structure. Organ music was associated with Gothic cathedrals.

The basis of architectural composition is the volumetric-spatial structure, the organic relationship of the elements of a building or ensemble of buildings. The scale of the structure is semiotically significant and largely determines the nature of the artistic image, its monumentality or intimacy. Architecture does not reproduce reality pictorially, but is expressive in nature. Rhythm, the ratio of volumes, lines are the means of its expressiveness. One of the modern artistic structures is arrhythmia in rhythm, dissonance in harmony (for example, an ensemble of buildings in the city of Brazil).

Architecture originated in ancient times, at the highest level of barbarism, when the laws of not only necessity, but also beauty began to operate in construction.

IN Ancient Egypt Huge tombs were built (the height of the Cheops pyramid in Giza is about 150 m), temples with many powerful columns (in the Temple of Amun in Karnak, the height of the columns is 20.4 m and the diameter is 3.4 m). This architecture is characterized by geometric clarity of forms, lack of divisions, disproportion between the scale of the structure and the person, and monumentality that overwhelms the individual. Grandiose structures were created not to satisfy the material needs of the people, but in the name of spiritual and religious goals and served the cause of the social organization of the Egyptians under the despotic rule of the pharaoh.

In Ancient Hellas, architecture takes on a democratic appearance. Religious buildings (for example, the Parthenon Temple) affirm the beauty, freedom, and dignity of the Greek citizen. New types of public buildings are emerging - theaters, stadiums, schools. Architects follow the humanistic principle of beauty formulated by Aristotle: beauty is not too big and not too small. The person here acts as a measure of the beauty and scale of the building, which, unlike the buildings of Ancient Egypt, does not suppress, but exalts the individual, which corresponded to the social goals of Athenian democracy. The architects of ancient Greece created an order system that played a large role in the development of architecture. IN Ancient Rome Arched and vaulted concrete structures are widely used. New types of buildings appeared: forums, triumphal arches, reflecting the ideas of statehood and military power.

In the Middle Ages, architecture became the leading and most popular form of art, whose images were accessible even to illiterate people. Gothic cathedrals reaching towards the sky expressed a religious impulse towards God and the people's passionate earthly dream of happiness.

Renaissance architecture develops on a new basis the principles and forms of ancient classics.

Classicism canonized the compositional techniques of antiquity.

From the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th century, during the era of the formation of national states, accompanied by wars, Baroque developed (a large number of stucco decorations, complexity of divisions and spatial relationships, pomp, exaltation, contrast of forms). Baroque buildings served to glorify and affirm absolutism (such as the Palace of Versailles) and Catholicism (for example, the Roman church of Santa Maria della Vittoria).

At the beginning of the 18th century. in France, the Rococo style arose and spread throughout Europe (for example, the Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam) as an expression of the tastes of the aristocracy (decoration, whimsical ornamentation of form, deliberate asymmetry and complexity of winding lines, and in the interior - rich paintings and large mirrors creating the impression lightness and immateriality of walls).

In the second half of the 18th century. Rococo gives way to Empire - a monumental, majestic style based on the traditions of classicism and the style of the era of the Roman emperors. It expresses military might and the greatness of power (for example, the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, superior to the arches of the ancient world, or the Vendôme Column, repeating Trajan's Column in Rome).

The achievements of Russian architecture are depicted in Kremlins, fortifications, palaces, religious and civil buildings. Russian architecture is rich in original national creations (the bell tower of Ivan the Great, St. Basil's Cathedral, wooden buildings with their clear constructive solutions and rich ornamental forms, such as the churches in Kizhi). “Russian Baroque” asserted the unity of the Russian state, the rise of national life (the works of Rastrelli: the Winter Palace and the ensembles of Tsarskoe Selo).

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the principles of Russian classicism are developed: clarity and expressiveness of the architectural image, simple constructive and artistic means. In the 19th century Eclecticism is affirmed.

In the 20th century New types of buildings are appearing: industrial, transport, administrative multi-storey buildings and residential areas. Their construction is carried out using industrial methods using new materials and standard factory-made elements. This changes aesthetic criteria and opens up new means of expression in architecture (in urban planning, for example, the problem arises artistic expression mass development).

The embellishment that characterized Soviet architecture from the 30s to the 50s hampered its development. The abandonment of decoration reduced the cost of construction, increased its scale and pace, and directed the creative minds of architects towards the search for simple, expressive architectural solutions. In this regard, the House of Cinema Veterans, a complex of buildings on Novy Arbat in Moscow, are indicative.

Sculpture- spatial visual art, mastering the world in plastic images that are imprinted in materials capable of conveying the vital appearance of phenomena.

Sculptural works are carved from marble, granite and other stone, carved from wood, and sculpted from clay. Soft materials are considered temporary; when working with them, it is usually assumed that further casting into more durable ones - cast iron, bronze. In our time, the number of materials suitable for sculpture has expanded: works of steel, concrete, and plastic have emerged.

Man is the main, but not the only subject of sculpture. Animal artists create animal figures. A circular sculpture can only recreate the details of the environment surrounding a person. Such types of sculpture as bas-relief and high relief are close to painting and graphics, and they can depict landscapes.

Sculpting always conveys movement. Even complete rest is perceived in sculpture as internal movement, as a lasting state, extended not only in space, but also in time. The sculptor has at his disposal only one moment of action, but it bears the stamp of everything that preceded and followed. This gives the sculpture dynamic expressiveness. Sculptural image of a dead person a person conveys the hidden movement diffused in the body, his eternal peace and the last efforts of struggle, frozen forever. This is the image of the dead Christ lying on the lap of the Mother of God in the sculpture “Pieta” by Michelangelo. The movement sleeps in the body of God the Son, falling from the mother’s lap and at the same time, as it were, resisting this lifeless fall.

The perception of sculpture always unfolds sequentially in time, which is used in the sculptural composition and helps to convey movement. All-round visibility, changing position, viewing angle reveal different sides of a three-dimensional image.

Monumentality is one of the possibilities of sculpture, providing it with a synthesis with architecture.

There is a broad generalization inherent in the very nature of sculpture. Pushkin noted that a painted sculpture makes less of an impression than a one-color sculpture; coloring takes away its generalization.

The means of representation and expressiveness of sculpture are light and shadow. The planes and surfaces of the sculptured figure, reflecting light and casting shadows, create a spatial play of forms that has an aesthetic effect on viewers.

Bronze sculpture allows for a sharp separation of light and shadow, while marble, permeable to light rays, allows for the subtle play of light and shadow to be conveyed. This feature of marble was used by ancient artists; Thus, the delicate pinkish, slightly translucent marble of the statue of Venus de Milo amazingly conveys the tenderness and elasticity of a woman’s body.

Sculpture is one of the oldest forms of art, dating back to the Paleolithic era. During the development of ancient society, on the basis of magical realities (syncretistic and ritual in nature, pre-artistic images) that arose from practical needs, a sign system was born, which then contributed to the artistic and figurative reflection of the world. For example, a stone that personified an animal and served as a target for inflicting wounds (a “rehearsal” for a hunt) is replaced by a natural stuffed animal, and then by a sculptural image of it.

In Ancient Egypt, sculpture was associated with the cult of the dead: the belief that the soul is alive as long as the image of a person exists forced the creation of durable sculptures from the strongest materials (Lebanese cedar, granite, red porphyry, basalt). Ancient Egyptian sculpture is characterized by monumentality, some simplicity of forms, and a tendency towards static figures.

In Ancient Greece, sculpting reached its highest level. It is no coincidence that Hegel associated the classical (ancient) period of art with sculpture. In ancient sculpture there is always a feeling of inner freedom. The hero is at ease and retains his inner dignity; even suffering does not distort, disfigure his face, or disturb the harmony of the image (for example, “Laocoon”).

The Middle Ages developed monumental forms of sculpture that were in synthesis with architecture. Gothic sculpture combined naturalistic detail with decorative and dynamic figures that conveyed intense spiritual life. Illusory, phantasmagoric, allegorical images also appear (for example, chimeras of Notre Dame Cathedral).

Sculptors during the Renaissance created a gallery of brightly individualized images of strong-willed, proactive, active people.

Baroque sculpture (17th century) was solemn, pathetic, ceremonial, full of a bizarre play of light and shadow, the boiling of swirling masses.

The sculpture of classicism, on the contrary, is rationalistic, calm, majestic, and nobly simple. In the 18th century sculpture tends to be socio-psychological portrait characteristics person.

In the 19th century Realism blossoms in sculpture: images acquire aesthetic versatility, historical specificity, everyday and psychological character.

In the 20th century sculptors give a generalized, sometimes symbolic, interpretation of sculptural images. The sculpture deepens the psychological content of the image, expanding the possibilities of expressing the spiritual life of the era in plastic.

Art serves as an expression of the thoughts, feelings, and unique personality of the artist, but it is also a mirror of the culture and history of the era in which this person was destined to create. The energy of creativity, which defines the entire history of art, binds masters separated in time with a single thread. And if you look from this point of view, then there is no need to consider various artistic movements and their representatives separately, since these are different phases of a great movement that is continuous in its progression. One generation is replaced by another; Ideas, theories and passions age, just like people, giving way to new trends. When an artist, through his own creativity, managed to awaken to life some new process of deep spiritual and artistic search, new styles were born, and the thread connecting them with the past was never interrupted, no matter how thin it might seem.
This book presents the history of art from ancient civilizations to the latest movements: in its inherent means of expression - painting, sculpture, architecture - and as a panorama of major movements, brilliant masters and the works that characterize their achievements. The history is presented in chapters according to the main artistic movements and different eras, and is subject to chronological order - from art in ancient society to the first flowering of medieval creativity in the Carolingian era, from the Renaissance to the Baroque, from Impressionism and Symbolism of the 19th century. to the early avant-garde, from abstractionism to postmodern architecture. Each chapter begins with abstracts that explain the essence of the process at one stage or another.

Art in the Ancient World.
Unusual forms of communication and artistic expression, primarily of a magical-religious nature, distinguish ancient society: just remember the temples and palaces in Mesopotamia or the Egyptian pyramids and temple complexes, but there were also decorative items and beautiful metal objects represented in the culture of almost all nations.

The Celts are a group of Indo-European peoples based in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the area between the upper Danube and the eastern part of what is now France, from where they then spread (from the 7th century BC) throughout almost all of Western Europe, the Balkans, Italy and Asia Minor. The period of this expansion ended at the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., when the power of Rome was already growing, and waves of migrating Germanic peoples began to roll in from the depths of Asia. Celtic society, with its tribal structure, was ruled by a king and gained resources through war, hunting and herding. The sense of tribal identity was very strong. Artistic production. Celtic art is characterized by a clearly defined and consistent anti-naturalism. Immersed in a magical and religious atmosphere, it found its most adequate expression in abstract ornamentation, which decorated primarily metal products (the beginning of the Iron Age, the first half of the 1st millennium BC); all the elements acquired in contact with different peoples were melted in it.

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• Art, 9th grade, Domestic and world artistic culture, Kolbysheva S.I., Zakharina Yu.Yu., Tomasheva I.G., 2019