Federal agency of Education

St. Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Department of History

Discipline: Cultural Studies

Titans and masterpieces of Renaissance culture

Student group 1 ES 2

E. Yu. Nalivko

Supervisor:

k.i. Sc., teacher

I. Yu. Lapina

Saint Petersburg

Introduction……………………………………………………3

Early Renaissance Art………………………..4

High Renaissance period…………………………….5

Sandro Botticelli……………………………………….5

Leonardo Da Vinci……………………………………7

Michelangelo Buonarroti …….………………………10

Raffaello Santi…………....…………………………….13

Conclusion……………………………………………………………..15

List of used literature………………………....16

Introduction

The Renaissance is an important period in world culture. Initially, a new phenomenon in European cultural life looked like a return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture in the field of science, philosophy, and literature. The phenomenon of the Renaissance lies in the fact that the ancient heritage turned into a weapon for overthrowing church canons and prohibitions. Essentially, we must talk about a grandiose cultural revolution, which lasted two and a half centuries and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. Nothing like this was observed outside the European region at that time. Therefore, this topic aroused my great interest and desire to examine this period in more detail.

In my essay I want to focus on such outstanding people as Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raffaello Santi. They became the most prominent representatives of the main stages of the Italian Renaissance.

1. Early Renaissance Art

In the first decades of the 15th century, a decisive turning point occurred in the art of Italy. The emergence of a powerful center of the Renaissance in Florence entailed a renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture.

The work of Donatello, Masaccio and their associates marks the victory of Renaissance realism, which differed significantly from the “realism of detail” that was characteristic of the Gothic art of the late Trecento. The works of these masters are imbued with the ideals of humanism. They heroize and exalt a person, raising him above the level of everyday life.

In their struggle with the Gothic tradition, artists of the early Renaissance sought support in antiquity and the art of the Proto-Renaissance. What the masters of the Proto-Renaissance sought only intuitively, by touch, is now based on precise knowledge.

Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by great diversity. The new art, which triumphed in advanced Florence at the beginning of the 15th century, did not immediately gain recognition and spread in other regions of the country. While Bruneleschi, Masaccio, and Donatello worked in Florence, the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art were still alive in northern Italy, only gradually supplanted by the Renaissance.

The main center of the early Renaissance was Florence. Florentine culture of the first half and mid-15th century is diverse and rich. Since 1439, since the ecumenical church council held in Florence, to which they arrived accompanied by a magnificent retinue Byzantine emperor John Palaiologos and the Patriarch of Constantinople, and especially after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, when many scientists who fled from the East found refuge in Florence, this city became one of the main centers in Italy for the study of the Greek language, as well as the literature and philosophy of Ancient Greece. And yet, the leading role in the cultural life of Florence in the first half and mid-15th century undoubtedly belonged to art. 1

2. High Renaissance period

This period of time represents the apogee of the Renaissance. It was a short period that lasted about 30 years, but in terms of quantity and quality, this period of time was like centuries. The art of the High Renaissance is a summation of the achievements of the 15th century, but at the same time it is a new qualitative leap, both in the theory of art and in its implementation. The extraordinary “density” of this period can be explained by the fact that the number of brilliant artists working simultaneously (in one historical period) is a kind of record even for the entire history of art. It is enough to name such names as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo.

3. Sandro Botticelli

The name of Sandro Botticelli is known throughout the world as one of the most remarkable artists of the Italian Renaissance.

Sandro Botticelli was born in 1444 (or 1445) in the family of a tanner, Florentine citizen Mariano Filippepi. Sandro was the youngest, fourth son of Filippepi. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known about where and when Sandro underwent artistic training and whether, as old sources report, he really first studied jewelry and then began to paint. In 1470, he already had his own workshop and independently carried out orders received.

The charm of Botticelli's art always remains a little mysterious. His works evoke a feeling that the works of other masters do not evoke.

Botticelli was inferior to many artists of the 15th century, some in courageous energy, others in the truthful accuracy of details. His images (with very rare exceptions) are devoid of monumentality and drama; their exaggeratedly fragile forms are always a little conventional. But like no other painter of the 15th century, Botticelli was endowed with the ability for the most subtle poetic understanding of life. For the first time, he was able to convey the subtle nuances of human experiences. Joyful excitement is replaced in his paintings by melancholic dreaminess, gusts of fun - by aching melancholy, calm contemplation - by uncontrollable passion.

Botticelli's new direction of art received its extreme expression in the last period of his activity, in the works of the 1490s and early 1500s. Here the techniques of exaggeration and dissonance become almost unbearable (for example, “The Miracle of St. Zenobius”). The artist either plunges into the abyss of hopeless sorrow (“Pieta”), or surrenders to enlightened exaltation (“Communion of St. Jerome”). His painting style is simplified almost to iconographic conventions, distinguished by some kind of naive tongue-tiedness. Both the drawing, taken in its simplicity to the limit, and the color with its sharp contrasts of local colors are completely subordinate to the planar linear rhythm. The images seem to lose their real, earthly shell, acting as mystical symbols. And yet, in this thoroughly religious art, the human element makes its way with tremendous force. Never before has an artist put so much personal feeling into his works; never before have his images had such a high moral significance.

With the death of Botticelli, the history of Florentine painting of the Early Renaissance ends - this true spring of Italian artistic culture. A contemporary of Leonardo, Michelangelo and the young Raphael, Botticelli remained alien to their classical ideals. As an artist, he belonged entirely to the 15th century and had no direct successors in High Renaissance painting. However, his art did not die with him. It was the first attempt to reveal the spiritual world of man, a timid attempt that ended tragically, but which, through generations and centuries, received its infinitely multifaceted reflection in the work of other masters.

Botticelli's art is the poetic confession of a great artist, which excites and will always excite the hearts of people. 2

4. Leonardo Da Vinci

In the history of mankind it is not easy to find another person as brilliant as the founder of High Renaissance art, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The comprehensive nature of the activities of this great artist and scientist became clear only when scattered manuscripts from his legacy were examined. A colossal amount of literature has been devoted to Leonardo, and his life has been studied in detail. And yet, much of his work remains mysterious and continues to excite people’s minds.

Leonardo Da Vinci was born in the village of Anchiano near Vinci: not far from Florence. He was the illegitimate son of a wealthy notary and a simple peasant woman. Noticing the boy’s extraordinary abilities in painting, his father sent him to the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio. In the teacher’s painting “The Baptism of Christ,” the figure of a spiritualized blond angel belongs to the brush of the young Leonardo.

Among his early works is the painting “Madonna with a Flower” (1472), executed in oil painting, then rare in Italy.

Around 1482, Leonardo entered the service of the Duke of Milan, Lodovico Moro. The master recommended himself first of all as a military engineer, architect, specialist in the field of hydraulic engineering, and only then as a painter and sculptor. However, the first Milanese period of Leonardo's work (1482-1499) turned out to be the most fruitful. The master became the most famous artist in Italy, studied architecture and sculpture, and turned to frescoes and altar paintings.

Leonardo's paintings from the Milanese period have survived to this day. The first altar composition of the High Renaissance was “Madonna in the Grotto” (1483-1494). The painter departed from the traditions of the fifteenth century: in whose religious paintings solemn constraint prevailed. In Leonardo's altarpiece there are few figures: a feminine Mary, the Infant Christ blessing little John the Baptist, and a kneeling angel, as if looking out from the picture. The images are ideally beautiful, naturally connected with their environment. This is like a grotto among dark basalt rocks with a gap in the depths - a generally fantastically mysterious landscape typical of Leonardo. The figures and faces are shrouded in an airy haze, giving them a special softness. The Italians called this technique of Leonardo sfumato.

In Milan, apparently, the master created the painting “Madonna and Child” (“Madonna Lita”). Here, in contrast to “Madonna with a Flower,” he strived for greater generalization of the ideality of the image. What is depicted is not a specific moment, but a certain long-term state of calm joy in which a young beautiful woman is immersed. A cold, clear light illuminates her thin, soft face with a half-lowered gaze and a light, barely perceptible smile. The painting is painted in tempera, which adds sonority to the tones of Mary’s blue cloak and red dress. The Baby’s fluffy, dark-golden curly hair is amazingly depicted, and his attentive gaze directed at the viewer is not childishly serious.

When Milan was taken by French troops in 1499, Leonardo left the city. The time of his wandering has begun. For some time he worked in Florence. There, Leonardo’s work seemed to be illuminated by a bright flash: he painted a portrait of Mona Lisa, the wife of the wealthy Florentine Francesco di Giocondo (circa 1503). The portrait is known as “La Gioconda” and has become one of the most famous works of world painting.

A small portrait of a young woman, shrouded in an airy haze, sitting against the backdrop of a bluish-green landscape, is full of such lively and tender trepidation that, according to Vasari, you can see the pulse beating in the hollow of Mona Lisa’s neck. It would seem that the picture is easy to understand. Meanwhile, in the extensive literature dedicated to La Gioconda, the most opposing interpretations of the image created by Leonardo collide.

In the last years of his life, Leonardo da Vinci worked little as an artist. Having received an invitation from the French king Francis 1, he left for France in 1517 and became a court painter. Leonardo soon died. In a self-portrait-drawing (1510-1515), the gray-bearded patriarch with a deep, mournful look looked much older than his age.

The scale and uniqueness of Leonardo’s talent can be judged by his drawings, which occupy one of the honorable places in the history of art. Not only manuscripts devoted to the exact sciences, but also works on the theory of art are inextricably linked with Leonardo da Vinci's drawings, sketches, sketches, and diagrams. Much space is given to the problems of chiaroscuro, volumetric modeling, linear and aerial perspective. Leonardo da Vinci owns numerous discoveries, projects and experimental studies in mathematics, mechanics, and other natural sciences.

The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have passed through the entire history of world culture and science and have had a huge influence. 3

5. Michelangelo Buonarroti

Among the demigods and titans of the High Renaissance, Michelangelo occupies a special place. As a creator of new art, he deserves the title of Prometheus of the 16th century

The beautiful marble sculpture, known as the Pieta, remains to this day a monument to the first stay in Rome and the full maturity of the 24-year-old artist. The Holy Virgin sits on a stone, on her lap rests the lifeless body of Jesus, taken from the cross. She supports him with her hand. Under the influence of ancient works, Michelangelo discarded all the traditions of the Middle Ages in depicting religious subjects. He gave harmony and beauty to the body of Christ and the whole work. The death of Jesus should not have caused horror, only a feeling of reverent surprise for the great sufferer. The beauty of the naked body benefits greatly from the effect of light and shadow produced by the skillfully arranged folds of Mary's dress. In the face of Jesus, depicted by the artist, they even found similarities with Savonarola. The Pieta remained an eternal testament of struggle and protest, an eternal monument to the hidden suffering of the artist himself.

Michelangelo returned to Florence in 1501, at a difficult moment for the city, where from a huge block of Carrara marble, which was intended for a colossal statue biblical David to decorate the dome of the cathedral, he decided to create a complete and perfect work, without reducing its size, and specifically David. In 1503, on May 18, the statue was installed in the Piazza della Señoria, where it stood for more than 350 years.

In Michelangelo's long and dreary life there was only one period when happiness smiled on him - this was when he worked for Pope Julius II. Michelangelo, in his own way, loved this rude warrior pope, who had not at all papal harsh manners. The tomb of Pope Julius did not turn out as magnificent as Michelangelo intended. Instead of the Cathedral of St. Peter she was placed in the small church of St. Petra, where it did not even enter entirely, and its individual parts dispersed to different places. But even in this form it is rightfully one of the most famous creations of the Renaissance. Its central figure is the biblical Moses, the liberator of his people from Egyptian captivity (the artist hoped that Julius would liberate Italy from the conquerors). All-consuming passion, superhuman strength strain the hero’s powerful body, will and determination, a passionate thirst for action are reflected on his face, his gaze is directed towards the promised land. A demigod sits in Olympian majesty. One of his hands rests powerfully on the stone tablet on his knees, the other rests here with the carelessness worthy of a man for whom the movement of his eyebrows is enough to make everyone obey. As the poet said, “before such an idol the Jewish people had the right to prostrate themselves in prayer.” According to contemporaries, Michelangelo’s “Moses” actually saw God.

At the request of Pope Julius, Michelangelo painted the ceiling Sistine Chapel in the Vatican with frescoes depicting the creation of the world. His paintings are dominated by lines and bodies. 20 years later, on one of the walls of the same chapel, Michelangelo painted a fresco “ Last Judgment“- a stunning vision of the appearance of Christ at the Last Judgment, at the wave of whose hand sinners fall into the abyss of hell. The muscular, Herculean giant resembles not the biblical Christ, who sacrificed himself for the good of humanity, but the personification of retribution of ancient mythology. The fresco reveals the terrible abysses of a desperate soul, the soul of Michelangelo.

Michelangelo's works express the pain caused by the tragedy of Italy, merging with the pain about his own sad fate. Michelangelo found beauty, which is not mixed with suffering and misfortune, in architecture. After Bramante's death, Michelangelo took over the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. A worthy successor to Bramante, he created a dome that is unsurpassed to this day in either size or grandeur,

Michelangelo had neither students nor a so-called school. But there remains a whole world created by him. 4

6. Raphael

The work of Raphael Santi is one of those phenomena of European culture that are not only covered with world fame, but have also acquired special significance - the highest landmarks in the spiritual life of mankind. For five centuries, his art has been perceived as one of the examples of aesthetic perfection.

Raphael's genius was revealed in painting, graphics, and architecture. Raphael's works represent the most complete, vivid expression of the classical line, the classical principle in the art of the High Renaissance (Appendix 3). Raphael created a “universal image” of a beautiful person, perfect physically and spiritually, embodying the idea of ​​the harmonious beauty of existence.

Raphael (more precisely, Raffaello Santi) was born on April 6, 1483 in the city of Urbino. He received his first painting lessons from his father, Giovanni Santi. When Raphael was 11 years old, Giovanni Santi died and the boy was left an orphan (he lost the boy 3 years before the death of his father). Apparently, over the next 5-6 years he studied painting with Evangelista di Piandimeleto and Timoteo Viti, minor provincial masters.

The first works of Raphael known to us were performed around 1500 - 1502, when he was 17-19 years old. These are miniature-sized compositions “The Three Graces” and “The Knight’s Dream”. These simple-minded, still student-timid things are marked by subtle poetry and sincerity of feeling. From the very first steps of his creativity, Raphael's talent is revealed in all its originality, and his own artistic theme is outlined.

The best works of the early period include Madonna Conestabile. Compositions depicting the Madonna and Child brought Raphael wide fame and popularity. The fragile, meek, dreamy Madonnas of the Umbrian period were replaced by more earthly, full-blooded images, their inner world became more complex, rich in emotional shades. Raphael created new type the image of the Madonna and Child - monumental, strict and lyrical at the same time, gave this topic unprecedented significance.

He glorified the earthly existence of man, the harmony of spiritual and physical forces in the paintings of stanzas (rooms) of the Vatican (1509-1517), achieving an impeccable sense of proportion, rhythm, proportions, euphony of color, unity of figures and the majesty of architectural backgrounds. There are many images of the Mother of God (“Sistine Madonna”, 1515-19), artistic ensembles in the paintings of the Villa Farnesina (1514-18) and the loggias of the Vatican (1519, with students). In portraits he creates the ideal image of a Renaissance man (“Baldassare Castiglione”, 1515). Designed the Cathedral of St. Peter, built the Chigi Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo (1512-20) in Rome.

Raphael's painting, its style, its aesthetic principles reflected the worldview of the era. By the third decade of the 16th century, the cultural and spiritual situation in Italy had changed. Historical reality destroyed the illusions of Renaissance humanism. The revival was coming to an end. 5

Conclusion

During the Renaissance, interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome was awakened, which prompted changes in Europe that marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. This period was not only a time of “revival” of the ancient past, it was a time of discovery and research, a time of new ideas. Classic examples inspired new thinking, with special attention paid to the human personality, the development and manifestation of abilities, rather than their limitations, which was characteristic of the Middle Ages. Teaching and research were no longer solely the work of the church. New schools and universities arose, natural science and medical experiments were carried out. Artists and sculptors strove in their work for naturalness, for a realistic recreation of the world and man. Classical statues and human anatomy were studied. Artists began to use perspective, abandoning flat images. The objects of art were the human body, classical and modern subjects, as well as religious themes. Capitalist relations were emerging in Italy, and diplomacy began to be used as a tool in relations between city-states. Scientific and technological discoveries, such as the invention of printing, contributed to the spread of new ideas. Gradually new ideas took hold of all of Europe.

Epochs Renaissance(XIV-XVI/XVII centuries) ... this is a great contribution to art Renaissance.TITANS THE HIGH RENAISSANCE LEONARDO DA VINCIAt the end... his unique contribution to era Renaissance and created its own masterpieces. IN culture XV-XVI centuries ...

Early Renaissance

Early Renaissance. Literary creativity dates back to the period of the Early Renaissance Francesco Petrarch And Giovanni Boccaccio . These greatest poets Italy is considered the creators of Italian literary language. Petrarch (1304-1374) remained in the history of the Renaissance as the first humanist who placed man, rather than God, at the center of his work. Gained worldwide fame sonnets Petrarch on the life and death of Madonna Laura. Petrarch's student and follower was Boccaccio (1313-1375), the author of a famous collection of realistic short stories. "Decameron". The deeply humanistic beginning of Boccaccio's work, full of subtle observations, excellent knowledge of psychology, humor and optimism, remains very instructive today. Considered an outstanding master of the Early Renaissance Masaccio (1401-1428). The artist's mural paintings (the Brancacci Chapel in Florence) are distinguished by energetic chiaroscuro modeling, plastic physicality, three-dimensionality of figures and their compositional linkage with the landscape. The legacy of an outstanding master of the Early Renaissance brush Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), who worked at the Medici court in Florence, is distinguished by its subtle coloring and mood of sadness. The master does not strive to follow the realistic style of Giotto and Masaccio; his images are flat and seemingly ethereal. Among the works created by Botticelli, the painting became the most famous "Birth of Venus". The most famous sculptor of the first half of the 15th century. Donatello (c. 1386-1466). Reviving ancient traditions, he was the first to introduce the naked body in sculpture, creating classical forms and types of Renaissance sculpture: a new type of round statue and sculptural group, picturesque relief. His art is distinguished by a realistic manner. Outstanding architect and sculptor of the Early Renaissance Philippa Brunelleschi (1377-1446) - one of the founders of Renaissance architecture. He managed to revive the basic elements of ancient architecture, to which he gave slightly different proportions. This allowed the master to orient the buildings towards people, and not suppress them, which, in particular, the buildings of medieval architecture were designed for. Brunelleschi talentedly solved the most complex technical problems (construction of the dome of the Florence Cathedral), and made a great contribution to fundamental science (the theory of linear perspective).

High Renaissance

High Renaissance. The High Renaissance period was relatively short. It is associated primarily with the names of three brilliant masters of the Titans of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci , Rafael Santi And Michelangelo Buonarroti . Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) has hardly any equal in terms of talent and versatility among the representatives of the Renaissance. It is difficult to name an industry in which he has not achieved unsurpassed skill. Leonardo was simultaneously an artist, art theorist, sculptor, architect, mathematician, physicist, mechanic, astronomer, physiologist, botanist, and anatomist. In his artistic heritage, such masterpieces that have come down to us stand out as « last supper» - fresco in the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan, as well as the most famous portrait of the Renaissance "La Gioconda" (Mona Lisa). Among Leonardo's many innovations, one should mention a special style of writing, called smoky chiaroscuro, which conveyed the depth of space. Great painter of Italy Rafael Santi(1483-1520) went down in the history of world culture as the creator of a number of painting masterpieces. This is an early work of the master "Madonna Conestabile" imbued with grace and soft lyricism. The artist's mature works are distinguished by the perfection of compositional solutions, color and expression. These are the paintings of the state rooms of the Vatican Palace and, of course, Raphael’s greatest creation - "Sistine Madonna". The last titan of the High Renaissance was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) - great sculptor, painter, architect and poet. Despite his versatile talents, he is called primarily the first draftsman of Italy thanks to the most significant work of an already mature artist - paintings on the vault of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace(1508-1512). The total area of ​​the fresco is 600 square meters. meters. As a sculptor, Michelangelo became famous for his early work "David". But Michelangelo gained true recognition as an architect and sculptor as the designer and construction manager of the main part of the building of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome, which remains to this day the largest Catholic church in the world

Art of Venice

4. Art of Venice. The period of the High and Late Renaissance saw the flowering of art in Venice. In the second half of the 16th century. Venice, which retained its republican structure, became a kind of oasis and center of the Renaissance. Among the artists Venetian school early deceased Giorgione (1476-1510), “Judith”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Rural Concert”. Giorgione’s work revealed the features of the Venetian school, in particular, the artist was the first to begin to give the landscape an independent meaning, solving the problems of color and light as a priority. Greatest Representative Venetian school - Titian Vecellio (1477/1487-1576). During his lifetime he received recognition in Europe. A number of significant works were completed by Titian commissioned by European monarchs and the Pope. Titian's works are attractive due to the novelty of their solutions, primarily to coloristic and compositional problems. For the first time, an image of a crowd appears on his canvases as part of the composition. The most famous works of Titian: “Penitent Magdalene”, “Love earthly and heavenly”, “Venus”, “Danae”, “Saint Sebastian” etc. The work of the greatest Italian poet dates back to the period of the High Renaissance Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533), who continued the literary traditions of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. His most famous work is the heroic knightly poem "Furious Roland" imbued with subtle irony and embodying the ideas of humanism.

Late Renaissance

Late Renaissance. The Late Renaissance period was marked by the onset of Catholic reaction. The Church unsuccessfully tried to restore its lost power over minds, encouraging cultural figures, on the one hand, and using repressive measures against the disobedient, on the other. Thus, many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the ideas of humanism, inheriting only manner, technique (the so-called mannerism) great masters of the Renaissance. Among the most important founders of mannerism Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1557) and Angelo Bronzino (1503-1572), who worked mainly in the genre of portraiture. However, mannerism, despite the powerful patronage of the church, did not become a leading movement during the Late Renaissance. This time was marked by the realistic, humanistic creativity of painters belonging to the Venetian school: Paolo Veronese e (1528-1588), Jacopo Tintoret (1518-1594), Michelangelo da Caravaggio (1573-1610), etc. His canvases are distinguished by simplicity of composition, emotional tension expressed through contrasts of light and shadow, and democracy. Caravaggio was the first to contrast the imitative direction in painting (mannerism) with realistic subjects of folk life - caravaggism. The last of the most important sculptors and jewelers in Italy was Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571), in whose work the realistic canons of the Renaissance were clearly evident (for example, the bronze statue of “Perseus”). Cellini remained in cultural history not only as a jeweler who gave his name to an entire period in the development of applied art, but also as an extraordinary memoirist, who was published more than once in Russian. The end of the Renaissance. In the 40s of the 16th century. The church in Italy began to widely repress dissidents. In 1542 The Inquisition was reorganized and its tribunal was created in Rome. Many advanced scientists and thinkers who continued to adhere to the traditions of the Renaissance were repressed and died at the stake of the Inquisition (among them the great Italian astronomer Giordano Bruno , 1548-1600). In 1540 has been approved Jesuit order, which essentially turned into a repressive organ of the Vatican. In 1559 Pope Paul IV publishes for the first time "List of Banned Books" The works of literature named in the “List” were forbidden to be read by believers under pain of excommunication. Among the books to be destroyed were many works of humanistic literature of the Renaissance (for example, the works of Boccaccio). Thus, the Renaissance by the early 40s of the 17th century. ended in Italy.

Renaissance culture

Periodization:

XIV century - Trecento, Proto-Renaissance.

XV century - Quattrocento, high Renaissance.

XVI century - Cinquecento, later Renaissance.¦ Revival of ancient traditions in architecture, painting, sculpture after the medieval decline of fine arts.

¦ Humanism: the human personality is the center of attention, admiration for the spiritual and physical beauty of a person; destruction of the cult of asceticism.¦ Reformation - the emergence of Protestantism; the response was the strengthening of the Inquisition, which led to the decline of the culture of the Renaissance.¦ A transitional culture that synthesized the traditions of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The painting of the early Renaissance goes through the same evolution as sculpture. Overcoming the Gothic abstraction of images, developing best features Giotto's paintings, artists of the 15th century embarked on the broad path of realism. Monumental fresco painting is experiencing an unprecedented flourishing.

Masaccio. Expulsion from Paradise, 1426–1427
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine
Brancacci Chapel, Florence

Uccello. Portrait of a Lady, 1450
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Castaño. Portrait of a Seigneur, 1446
National Gallery, Washington

Masaccio. A reformer of painting, who played the same role as in the development of Brunelleschi's architecture and Donatello in sculpture, was the Florentine Masaccio (1401–1428), who lived a short life and left remarkable works in which the search for a generalized heroic image of man and a truthful representation of the surroundings was continued his world. These quests were most clearly manifested in the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel at the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, “The Miracle of the Stater” and “The Expulsion from Paradise” (both between 1427–1428).

Masaccio breaks with the decorativeness and petty narrative that dominated painting in the second half of the 14th century. Following the tradition of Giotto, the artist Masaccio focuses on the image of a person, enhancing his harsh energy and activity, civic humanism. Masaccio takes a decisive step in combining figure and landscape, introducing for the first time aerial perspective. In Masaccio's frescoes, the shallow platform - the scene of action in Giotto's paintings - is replaced by an image of real deep space; The plastic light and shadow modeling of figures becomes more convincing and richer, their construction is stronger, and their characteristics are more varied. And besides, Masaccio retains the enormous moral power of images, which captivates Giotto in the art.

Angelico. Madonna Fiesole, 1430
Monastery of San Domenico, Fiesole

Lippi. Woman and man, 1460s
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Domenico. Madonna and Child
1437, Berenson Gallery, Florence

The most significant of Masaccio’s frescoes is “The Miracle of the Statir,” a multi-figure composition that, according to tradition, includes various episodes of the legend about how, upon entering the city, Christ and his disciples were asked for a fee - a statir (coin); how, by order of Christ, Peter caught a fish in the lake and found a statir in its mouth, which he handed over to the guard. Both of these additional episodes - fishing and the presentation of the stater - do not distract attention from the central scene - a group of apostles entering the city. Their figures are majestic, massive, courageous faces bear the individualized features of people from the people; in the man on the far right, some researchers see a portrait of Masaccio himself. The significance of what is happening is emphasized by the general state of restrained excitement. The naturalness of gestures and movements, the introduction of a genre motif in the scene of Peter’s search for the coin, and the carefully painted landscape give the painting a secular, deeply truthful character.

No less realistic is the interpretation of the “Expulsion from Paradise” scene, where, for the first time in Renaissance painting, nude figures are depicted, powerfully modeled by side light. Their movements and facial expressions express confusion, shame, and remorse. The great authenticity and persuasiveness of Masaccio’s images impart special strength to the humanistic idea of ​​the dignity and significance of the human personality. With his innovative quests, the artist opened up ways for the further development of realistic painting.

Uccello. An experimenter in the study and use of perspective was Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), the first Italian battle painter. Uccello varied compositions with episodes from the Battle of San Romano three times (mid-1450s, London, National Gallery; Florence, Uffizi; Paris, Louvre), enthusiastically depicting multi-colored horses and riders in a wide variety of perspective cuts and spreads.

Castaño. Among the followers of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno (about 1421 - 1457) stood out, who showed interest not only in the plastic form and perspective structures characteristic of Florentine painting of that time, but also in the problem of color. The best of the created images of this rough, courageous, uneven by nature artist are distinguished by heroic strength and irrepressible energy. These are the heroes of the paintings of the Villa Pandolfini (circa 1450, Florence, Church of Santa Apollonia) - an example of a solution to a secular theme. The figures of prominent figures of the Renaissance stand out against the green and dark red backgrounds, among them the condottieri of Florence: Farinata degli Uberti and Pippo Spano. The latter stands firmly on the ground, legs spread wide, clad in armor, with his head uncovered, with a drawn sword in his hands; he is a living person, full of frantic energy and confidence in his abilities. Powerful light-and-shadow modeling gives the image plastic strength, expressiveness, emphasizes the sharpness of individual characteristics, and a bright portraiture not previously seen in Italian painting.

Among the frescoes of the church of Santa Apollonia, the “Last Supper” (1445–1450) stands out for the scope of its image and the sharpness of its characteristics. This religious scene - Christ's meal surrounded by disciples - was painted by many artists, who always followed a certain type of composition. Castagno did not deviate from this type of construction. On one side of the table located along the wall, the artist placed the apostles. Among them, in the center is Christ. On the other side of the table is the lonely figure of the traitor Judas. Yet Castaño achieves great impact and innovative sound in his composition; This is facilitated by the bright character of the images, the nationality of the types of the apostles and Christ, the deep dramatic expression of feelings, and the emphatically rich and contrasting color scheme.

Angelico. The exquisite beauty and purity of delicate shining color harmonies, which acquire a special decorative quality in combination with gold, captivates the art of Fra Beato Angelico (1387–1455), full of poetry and fabulousness. Mystical in spirit, associated with the naive world of religious ideas, it is covered in poetry folk tale. The soulful images of the “Coronation of Mary” (circa 1435, Paris, Louvre), frescoes of the Monastery of San Marco in Florence, created by this unique artist - a Dominican monk, are enlightened.

Domenico Veneziano. Problems of color also attracted Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – 1461), a native of Venice who worked mainly in Florence. His religious compositions (“Adoration of the Magi,” 1430–1440, Berlin-Dahlem, Art Gallery), naive and fairy-tale in their interpretation of the theme, still bear the imprint of the Gothic tradition. Renaissance features appeared more clearly in the portraits he created. In the 15th century, the portrait genre gained its own significance. The profile composition, inspired by ancient medals and making it possible to generalize and glorify the image of the person being portrayed, has become widespread. A precise line outlines a sharp profile in the “Portrait of a Woman” (mid-15th century, Berlin-Dahlem, Picture Gallery). The artist achieves a living direct similarity and at the same time a subtle coloristic unity in the harmony of light shining colors, transparent, airy, softening the contours. The painter was the first to introduce Florentine masters to the technique of oil painting. By introducing varnishes and oils, Domenico Veneziano enhanced the purity and richness of color of his canvases.

Moving on to the characteristics of the Early Renaissance in Italy, it is necessary to emphasize the following. By the beginning of the 15th century. in Italy the young bourgeois class had already acquired all its main features and became the main protagonist of the era. He stood firmly on the ground, believed in himself, grew rich and looked at the world with different, sober eyes. The tragedy of the worldview, the pathos of suffering became more and more alien to him: the aestheticization of poverty - everything that dominated public consciousness medieval city and was reflected in his art. Who were these people? These were people of the third estate, who won an economic and political victory over the feudal lords, direct descendants of the medieval burghers, who in turn came from medieval peasants who moved to the cities.

The cities of Italy were relatively small, and the intensity of public life, the whirlpool of political passions, the whirlpool of political events was so strong that no one could remain on the sidelines. In this fiery font, proactive, energetic characters were formed and tempered. The wide range of human capabilities was revealed so clearly that the illusion of the omnipotence of the human personality was born in the public and individual consciousness.

This shift in human consciousness was clearly captured by one of the most important figures of the Renaissance, Pico, the ruler of the Republic of Mirandola, who went down in history as Pico della Mirandola (1462-1494). He is the author of the treatise “On the Dignity of Man,” which sets out the doctrine of man’s personal activity, of man’s creation of himself. In this treatise, he puts into the mouth of God the following words addressed to Adam: “I created you as a being not heavenly, but not only earthly, not mortal, but also not immortal, so that you, free from constraint, would become your own creator and forge yourself finally your image. You have been given the opportunity to fall to the level of an animal, but also the opportunity to rise to the level of a god-like being - solely thanks to your inner will.”

The ideal becomes the image of a self-creating universal person - a titan of thought and deed. In Renaissance aesthetics, this phenomenon is called titanism. The Renaissance man thought of himself, first of all, as a creator and artist, like that absolute personality, the creation of which he recognized himself.

Since the 14th century. Cultural figures throughout Europe were convinced that they were living through a “new age,” a “modern age” (Vasari). The feeling of the ongoing “metamorphosis” was intellectual and emotional in content and almost religious in character.

The history of European culture owes to the early Renaissance the emergence of humanism. It acts as a philosophical and practical type of Renaissance culture. We can say that the Renaissance is the theory and practice of humanism. Expanding the concept of humanism, it should, first of all, emphasize that humanism is a free-thinking consciousness and completely secular individualism.

The term “humanism” (its Latin form is studia humanitatis) was introduced by the “new people” of the Early Renaissance, reinterpreting it in their own way ancient philosopher and the orator Cicero, for whom the term meant the completeness and inseparability of the diverse nature of man. One of the first humanists, Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444), translator of Plato and Aristotle, defined studia humanitatis as “the knowledge of those things that relate to life and morals and that improve and adorn a person.” This, in the understanding of humanists, included grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, moral and political philosophy, music - and all this on the basis of deep Greco-Roman linguistic education.

A special situation quickly developed cultural environment- groups of humanists. Their composition, at first, was very diverse: officials and sovereigns, professors and scribes, diplomats and clergy. In essence, this was the birth of the European intelligentsia - a conscious bearer of education and spirituality. The most significant results of the scientific studies of humanists were the theoretical justification for the affirmation of human individuality, the discovery of the inner world of man and the development of an original concept in which a synthesis of ancient and Christian ideals was found - Christian pantheism, where Nature and God were fused together.

The philosophy of the Renaissance was Neoplatonism. The central place in it was occupied by the idea that the world of ideas defines, comprehends and organizes the entire human personality. During the Renaissance, the doctrine of the world of ideas takes the form of the doctrine of the World Mind and the World Soul.

For the period 1470-1480. The Florentine Academy, also known as Plato's Academy, flourished under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. It was something between a club, a scientific seminar and a religious sect. Members of the Academy spent time in scientific debates, various kinds of free activities, walks, feasts, studying and translating ancient authors. Within the walls of the Academy, a revivalist free attitude to life, to nature, to art and to religion flourished.

Along with all this, the entire Renaissance society from top to bottom was embraced by the everyday practice of alchemy, astrology and all kinds of magic. This was by no means the result of mere ignorance, but a consequence of an individualistic thirst to master the mysterious forces of nature. Many popes have already been astrologers. Even the famous humanist pope Leo X believed that astrology added extra shine to his court. Cities fought with each other and resorted to the help of astrologers. Condottieri, as a rule, coordinated their campaigns with them. The Renaissance is very rich in endless superstitions, which covered absolutely all levels of society, including scientists and philosophers, not to mention rulers and politicians.

The most striking household type of the Early Renaissance was that cheerful and frivolous, profound and artistically beautifully expressed community life in Florence at the end of the 15th century. Here we find tournaments, balls, carnivals, ceremonial outings, festive feasts and in general all sorts of delights even of everyday life, summer pastime, country life, the exchange of flowers, poems, madrigals, ease and grace, as in Everyday life, and in science, in eloquence and in art in general, correspondence, walks, loving friendships, artistic mastery of Italian, Greek, Latin and other languages, adoration of the beauty of thought and a passion for both religion and literature of all times and peoples.

In Baldassare Castiglione's treatise "The Courtier" everyone is depicted necessary qualities well-bred person of that time: the ability to fight beautifully with swords, gracefully ride a horse, dance exquisitely, always speak pleasantly and politely and even speak sophisticatedly, master musical instruments, never be artificial, but always only simple and natural, secular to the core and in the depths of the believer's soul. And this treatise ends with a panegyric to Cupid, the giver of all blessings and all contentment.

One of the most interesting everyday types of the Renaissance is adventure and even outright adventurism . These everyday forms were justified and were not considered a violation of morality. The urban type of culture of the Early Renaissance is replete with naturalistic sketches of an enterprising and disruptive hero of the rising plebeian lower classes.

The individualism of the Renaissance was, under the influence of humanism, largely secularized - freed from the influence of the church. However, we have no reason to call the revivalists atheists. Atheism was not a revivalist idea, but anti-churchism was a real revivalist idea. Renaissance man still wanted to remain a spiritual being, albeit outside of any cult and outside of any confession, but still not outside of that spiritual nobility that formerly man drew from his consciousness of God.

The era of the Early Renaissance is a time of rapid reduction of the distance between God and the human personality. All inaccessible objects of religious veneration, which are medieval Christianity demanded an absolute chaste attitude towards themselves, became in the Renaissance something very accessible and psychologically extremely close. Let us cite, for example, the words of Christ with which, according to the intention of the author of one literary work of that time, addresses one of the then nuns: “Sit down, my beloved, I want to pamper you. My adored, my beautiful, my golden, there is honey under your tongue... Your mouth smells like a rose, your body smells like a violet ... You took possession of me like a young lady who caught a young gentleman in the room ... If my suffering and my death had atone for your sins alone, I would not regret the torment that I had to experience.”

The process of becoming new culture was reflected in the fine arts. The painting and plastic arts of the Early Renaissance are extremely characterized by the continuous growth of realistic trends, religious images become more and more emotional and humane, figures acquire volume..., the planar interpretation is gradually replaced by a relief one based on cut-off modeling.

In the Early Renaissance, free human individuality comes to the fore. It is conceived physically, bodily, three-dimensionally and three-dimensionally. In those days, in the visual arts there was a direct deification of man, an absolutization of the human personality with all its material corporeality.

The founders of the Early Renaissance in the fine arts are traditionally considered to be the artist Masaccio (1401-1428), the sculptor Donatello (1386-1466) and the architect Bruneleschi, who lived and worked in Florence.

Masaccio picked up the fading tradition of Giotto and completed the conquest of three-dimensional space by painting. Art historians highlight Masaccio's three-dimensional image of a person who is worthy and self-confident, or who is lyrical and sometimes flirtatious. From this, his painting begins to produce a sculptural impression. For this volumetric physicality, antique samples were precisely needed.

The sculptor who was destined to solve many problems of European plastic art for a whole century ahead - round sculpture, monument, equestrian monument - was Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, known in art history as Donatello (1386-1466). Among the many works of the master, his bronze David especially stands out. Just the fact that Donatello’s David stands naked suggests that for the sculptor the Old Testament legend in itself is of least importance. And the fact that David is depicted as an excited young man with a huge sword in his hands testifies not to the abstract ancient physicality, but to the body of a man who has just won a great victory. The original republican pathos is clearly visible in Donatello's work: his Christ looks like a peasant, Florentine citizens act as evangelists and prophets.

Bruneleschi became famous for the gigantic octagonal dome over the cathedral of the Florentine Republic (1420-1436). It was perceived as a symbol of the unity of people because it was built so that “all Tuscan peoples could gather in it.”

The Venetian school, represented by its main representative Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), provided examples of contemplative and self-suppressive peace. Bellini brings to the fore the aesthetic admiration of a work of art, which was considered a sin and unthinkable in the Middle Ages.

Characteristic feature Renaissance culture had a pronounced mathematical bias in the Renaissance worldview. This was very clearly demonstrated in fine arts. An artist's very first teacher should be mathematics. Mathematics in the hands of the Renaissance artist is directed towards the careful measurement of the naked human body; if antiquity divided a person’s height into some six or seven parts, then Alberti, in order to achieve accuracy in painting and sculpture, now divides it into 600, and Dürer subsequently into 1800 parts. The Renaissance artist is not only an expert in all sciences, but primarily in mathematics and anatomy.

The Early Renaissance is a time of experimental painting. To experience the world in a new way meant, first of all, to see it in a new way. The perception of reality is verified by experience and controlled by the mind. The initial desire of the artists of that time was to depict the way we see how a mirror “depicts” the surface. For that time, this was a genuine revolutionary coup.

Geometry, mathematics, anatomy, and the study of the proportions of the human body are of great importance for artists of this time. The artist of the Early Renaissance counted and measured, armed himself with a compass and a plumb line, drew perspective lines and a vanishing point, studied the mechanism of body movements with the sober gaze of an anatomist, classified the movements of passion.

The Renaissance in painting and plastic arts for the first time revealed in the West all the drama of gestures and all its saturation with the inner experiences of the human personality. Human face has ceased to be a reflection of otherworldly ideals, but has become an intoxicating and endlessly delightful sphere of personal expressions about the entire infinite gamut of all kinds of feelings, moods, states.

Most of the plots of Renaissance fiction are taken from the Bible and even from the New Testament. These stories are usually distinguished by a very sublime character - religious, moral, psychological, and life in general. The Renaissance usually interprets these subjects in the plane of the most ordinary psychology, the most generally understood physiology, even in the plane of everyday life and philistine. Thus, a favorite subject of Renaissance works is the Virgin and Child. These Renaissance Madonnas no longer have anything in common with the former icons to which they prayed, to which they venerated and from which they expected miraculous help. These Madonnas have long become the most ordinary portraits, sometimes with all the realistic and even naturalistic details. Even quite pious painters, like the former monk Filippo Lippi or the meek Perugino, Raphael’s teacher, painted the Virgin from their wives and mistresses, maintaining portraiture; sometimes the Madonnas turned out to be beautiful courtesans known to everyone in the city.

Early Renaissance painting reflected the sophisticated Italian sensuality of those times, the widespread cult of sensual beauty and grace. Brilliant examples of artistic understanding of this phenomenon were given by Sandro Botticelli (1444-1510). His work embodied the humanists’ ideas about the identification of soul and body, most thoroughly developed by Lorenzo Valla.

During the Early Renaissance, a type of secular palace (palazzo) was formed. Free, often chaotic, development is being replaced by planned development. Its pioneer B. Peruzzi makes the street, not the house, the unit of architecture. City projects are emerging in which the social ideas of their authors are easily read. Thus, Leonardo’s city consists of two levels: on the upper streets there are facades of rich houses, and on the lower floors, facing the other side - onto the lower streets, where everything flows from the upper ones, the servants, the plebs, are housed.

It must be said frankly that the energy of the new man at that time served both good and evil - both on a large scale, on a grand scale. Characteristic feature The culture of the Early Renaissance became an unprecedented rampant of passions. Pornographic literature and paintings are becoming widespread. Artists vied with each other to depict Leda, Ganymede, Priam, and bacchanalia. A prominent place in the history of the Italian Renaissance is occupied by the author of the treatise “On Pleasures,” Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457). With the duality of approach characteristic of his time, he gives an apologetic presentation of the teachings of the Epicureans. At the same time, the form of presentation he chose, in fact, was a preaching of the most unbridled and unbridled physical pleasure, praise of wine drinking, and female charms.

Internal strife and the struggle of parties in various cities of Italy, which did not stop throughout the Renaissance, put forward strong personalities who asserted their unlimited power in one form or another, were distinguished by merciless cruelty and some kind of frantic rage. Executions, murders, pogroms, torture, conspiracies, arson, and robberies continuously follow each other. The winners deal with the vanquished, so that in a few years they themselves become victims of new winners.

Already from the 13th century. In Italy, condottieri appeared, leaders of mercenary detachments who served certain cities for money. These mercenary gangs intervened in internecine disputes and were particularly brazen and brutal. In the middle of the 14th century. The “Great Company” of the German condottiere Werner von Urslingen enjoys loud and bloody fame, who wrote on its banner: “Enemy of God, justice, mercy,” which imposed tribute on such large cities as Bologna and Siena. Even more famous for his treachery and greed was the Englishman John Gaukwood, surrounded by universal fear and admiration and buried with great honors in the Florence Cathedral. Many condottieri seized cities and became the founders of Italian dynasties. Such are Visconti and Sforza in Milan.

It is important to understand the historical necessity reverse side brilliant titanism. Initial capitalist accumulation required the destruction of all the fundamental foundations of feudalism, including morality and the strictest rules of human social behavior. For such a break, very strong people were needed - titans of man's earthly self-affirmation, often with a minus sign. Under feudalism, people sinned against their conscience and after committing the sin they repented of it. During the Renaissance, different times came. People committed the most savage crimes and did not repent of them in any way, and they did so because the last criterion for human behavior was then considered to be the individual who felt isolated.

The clergy ran butcher shops, taverns, gambling houses and brothels. Writers of that time compared monasteries either to dens of robbers or to obscene houses. The phenomena of simony (selling positions), corruption, immorality and, in general, criminality of the higher clergy are becoming widespread. For political reasons, minor children are appointed as senior clergy, cardinals and bishops. Giovanni Medici, the future Pope Leo X, became a cardinal at age 13, Alexander Farnese, son of Pope Paul III, was appointed bishop at age 14. All this greatly contributed to the decline of the authority of the Catholic Church.

A colossal figure of the Renaissance was the famous monk Savonarola (1452-1498). He became famous for his angry sermons against the corruption of the clergy and the church, and for his passionate denunciations of the tyranny of the Medici. For some time he became the de facto head of the government of Florence and carried out a number of political events that were quite revivalist and democratic in spirit. At the same time, Savonarola preached repentance and moral rebirth. As a representative of church orthodoxy, he absorbed the advanced ideas of the Renaissance and humanism and turned out to be the greatest opponent of ecclesiastical plagues within the church. He defended not a dilapidated and old-fashioned Catholicism, but a humanistically renewed Catholicism. The Pope launched a real war against him, as a result of which Savonarola was first hanged and then burned.

general characteristics High Renaissance.

The Proto-Renaissance lasted in Italy for 150 years, the Early Renaissance - about 100 years, the High - about 30 years. The short-lived golden age of the Italian Renaissance highest point The heyday of Italian art comes in difficult times for Italy, coinciding with the period of fierce struggle of Italian cities for independence. Its end is associated with 1530, a tragic milestone when the Italian states lost their freedom, won by the Habsburgs.

Despite the maximum effort of republican circles, Italy was doomed. Just as it once was for the Greek city-states, so now the hour of reckoning has come for Italian cities for their democratic past, for separatism, for the prematurity of development. So early and so rapidly developing in them, the new social relations did not have a strong base, they were not based on an industrial, technical revolution - their strength lay in international trade, and the discovery of America and new trade routes deprived them of this advantage.

By this time, the main internal contradiction of the cultural process of the Renaissance, the process of the formation of individualism, had finally formed and sharply intensified.

The great discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler scattered dreams of human power. Copernicus and Bruno turned the earth in the eyes and consciousness of man into an insignificant grain of sand in the universe. Heliocentrism and the doctrine of infinite worlds did not simply contradict the personal-material basis of the Renaissance. This was the self-denial of the Renaissance. From the ruler and artist of nature, the revivalist became her insignificant slave.

The cultural crisis of the Renaissance was clearly manifested in the political sphere. Political life The Renaissance was very intense and multifaceted. None of the Italian regimes of the 15th and early 16th centuries was very stable and power often passed into the hands of tyrants. The dominance of individualism in social ideology also affected political practice. This was most clearly manifested in the creativity and activity of Nicolo Machiavelli, (1469-1527), famous for his treatise “The Prince” (or “Monarch”, “Sovereign”). Machiavelli was a supporter of a moderate democratic and republican system. But he preached his democratic and republican views only for future times. For contemporary Italy, in view of its fragmentation and chaotic state, he demanded the establishment of the most brutal state power and the most merciless rule. In his conclusions, he was based only on the widespread and bestial egoism of people and on the police taming of this egoism by any state means, allowing for cruelty, treachery, perjury, bloodthirstiness, murder, any deception, any unceremoniousness. Machiavelli's ideal was none other than the most depraved and cruelly disposed towards all people, even to the point of fundamental immorality, Duke Caesar Borgia. Formally, Prince Machiavelli is also a Renaissance titan, but freed not only from Christian morality, but also from morality and humanism in general. In this sense, Machiavellianism appears as a harsh child of the outdated Renaissance.

Interesting shape The manifestation of the crisis of values ​​of the Renaissance was utopianism. The mere fact that the creation of an ideal society was attributed to very distant and completely uncertain times clearly demonstrates the disbelief of the authors of such a utopia in the possibility of creating ideal person immediately. In the ideal State of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), one is struck by the strict regulation down to the smallest detail of the entire life of people, resulting from the author’s refusal of the humanistic principles of the Renaissance.

The art of the High Renaissance presents a complex and contradictory picture. On the one hand, as the completion of all previous development of humanistic ideology in 1505-1515. a classical ideal is emerging in Italian art. The problems of civic duty, high moral qualities, heroism, and the image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed, strong in spirit and body person - a hero, came to the fore in art. The art of the High Renaissance abandons particulars and insignificant details in the name of a generalized image, in the name of the desire for a harmonious synthesis of the beautiful aspects of life. This is one of the main differences between the High Renaissance and the Early Renaissance.

Only three names are enough to understand the significance of this period for European culture as a whole: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo. In the consciousness of descendants, these three peaks, according to the figurative definition of N.A. Dmitrieva, form a single mountain range, personifying the main values Italian Renaissance- Intelligence, Harmony, Power.

As a mature master, he appears to Leonardo da Vinci already in “Madonna in the Grotto.” The pinnacle of his work is “The Last Supper,” the only work of Leonardo that, according to the outstanding Russian art critic A. Efros, can be called harmonious in the greatest sense.” In the portrait of Mona Lisa, Leonardo's brushes are clearly visible classical, i.e. Renaissance features - clarity of outline, tangible flexibility of lines, sculptural play of moods within the physiognomy and harmony of a contradictory portrait calling into an indefinite distance with a semi-fantastic landscape.

Raphael was convinced that beauty appears as a purified, perfect form of nature itself. It is accessible to the human eye, and the artist's task is to demonstrate it. Everything is different in its captivating depth greatest work brushes by Raphael “Sistine Madonna”. As a convinced humanist, an excellent expert on ancient culture, he appears in the “School of Athens”.

At the same time, it is obvious that the crisis of Renaissance values ​​did not bypass their creativity. Leonardo's work was significantly influenced by rationalism and mechanism, so widespread during the high Renaissance. The subtle psychological characteristics of the apostles and Christ in “The Last Supper” are achieved with perfect spatial organization of the picture plane due to the maximum expressiveness of the gesture. The depicted figures are completely subordinated to the spatial structure. But art critics have repeatedly noted that behind this apparent freedom lies absolute constraint and even some fragility, since with the slightest change in the position of even one figure, this entire subtle and masterly spatial structure will inevitably crumble.

The only figure in Michelangelo where we see heroized titanism is David (1501-1504). In his famous fresco “The Last Judgment,” Michelangelo shows the futility of everything earthly, the corruption of the flesh, the helplessness of man before the very dictates of fate.

Among the artists of the High Renaissance, the human personality is placed above all else. In the picture, this boiled down to the fact that the landscape or landscape played a tertiary or even completely zero role in comparison with the human figures in the foreground. Only the Venetians began to break this practice - primarily Giorgione, for whom the landscape is in a deeper, harmonious combination with the human figures depicted against its background (“Sleeping Venus”).

Titian also stands out because the main object of his attention is the emotional content of the plot. This is clearly seen in his example famous painting“Denarius of Caesar.”

To summarize what has been said, it should be emphasized that the Renaissance appears to us as a long, complex and contradictory process of the formation of a new European culture. It had deep premises from the social and spiritual life of the late Middle Ages; it was determined by many specific economic, political and ideological factors of its time. This process took place both in a merciless struggle and in fragile compromises with the old medieval world. Ultimately, its development broke the “spiritual dictatorship of the church,” established the humanistic worldview, and led to a revolutionary transformation of ideology and all areas of culture.

The Italian Renaissance had its own beginning, its own maturity and its own end, manifesting itself not as a simultaneous act, but also as a long and multifaceted process. The crisis of the Renaissance was caused by the clash of its ideological program, its spiritual ideals with social reality. The entire Renaissance is permeated with an awareness of the insufficiency and inconclusiveness of the first form of individualism of the human personality of modern times. Two elements permeate the spiritual life and art of the Renaissance. On the one hand, the thinkers and artists of the Renaissance felt within themselves boundless power and an unprecedented opportunity to penetrate the depths of human experience and artistic imagery. On the other hand, they always felt the limitations of the human being, its frequent helplessness in transforming nature and in artistic creativity. Therefore, the Renaissance appears to us ultimately as a constant and passionate search by man for a more powerful justification for anthropocentrism than was provided by both ancient and medieval culture.

The epoch-making period in the history of world culture, which preceded the Modern Age and was given the name Renaissance, or Revival. The history of the era begins at the dawn of Italy. Several centuries can be characterized as the time of formation of a new, human and earthly picture of the world, which is essentially secular in nature. Progressive ideas found their embodiment in humanism.

Renaissance years and concept

It is quite difficult to set a specific time frame for this phenomenon in the history of world culture. This is explained by the fact that all European countries entered the Renaissance at different times. Some earlier, others later, due to the lag in socio-economic development. Approximate dates include the beginning of the 14th and the end of the 16th century. The years of the Renaissance are characterized by the manifestation of the secular nature of culture, its humanization, and the flourishing of interest in antiquity. By the way, the name of this period is connected with the latter. There is a revival of its introduction into the European world.

General characteristics of the Renaissance

This revolution in the development of human culture occurred as a result of changes in European society and relations in it. An important role is played by the fall of Byzantium, when its citizens fled en masse to Europe, bringing with them libraries, various ancient sources, previously unknown. The increase in the number of cities led to an increase in the influence of the simple classes of artisans, merchants, and bankers. Various centers of art and science began to actively appear, the activities of which the church no longer controlled.

The first years of the Renaissance are usually counted with its onset in Italy; it was in this country that this movement began. Its initial signs became noticeable in the 13-14th centuries, but it took a strong position in the 15th century (20s), reaching its maximum flourishing towards its end. The Renaissance (or Renaissance) era is divided into four periods. Let's look at them in more detail.

Proto-Renaissance

This period dates back to approximately the second half of the 13th-14th century. It is worth noting that all dates refer to Italy. In fact, this period represents the preparatory stage of the Renaissance. It is conventionally divided into two stages: before and after the death (1137) of Giotto di Bondone (sculpture in the photo), a key figure in the history of Western art, architect and artist.

The last years of the Renaissance of this period are associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy and the whole of Europe as a whole. The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, Gothic, Romanesque, and Byzantine traditions. Giotto is considered to be the central figure, who outlined the main trends in painting and pointed out the path along which its development would follow.

Early Renaissance period

In time it took eighty years. The early years of which are characterized in very two ways, fell on 1420-1500. Art has not yet completely renounced medieval traditions, but is actively adding elements borrowed from classical antiquity. As if incrementally, year after year, under the influence of changing conditions of the social environment, there is a complete rejection by artists of the old and a transition to ancient art as the main concept.

High Renaissance period

This is the peak, the peak of the Renaissance. On at this stage The Renaissance (1500-1527) reached its apogee, and the center of influence of all Italian art moved to Rome from Florence. This happened in connection with the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, who had very progressive, bold views, was an enterprising and ambitious man. He attracted the most best artists and sculptors from all over Italy. It was at this time that the real titans of the Renaissance created their masterpieces, which the whole world admires to this day.

Late Renaissance

Covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. The development of culture and art in this period is so heterogeneous and diverse that even historians do not reduce it to one denominator. According to British scholars, the Renaissance finally died out at the moment when the fall of Rome occurred, namely in 1527. plunged into the Counter-Reformation, which put an end to all free-thinking, including the resurrection of ancient traditions.

The crisis of ideas and contradictions in worldview eventually resulted in mannerism in Florence. A style that is characterized by disharmony and artificiality, a loss of balance between the spiritual and physical components, characteristic of the Renaissance era. For example, Venice had its own development path; masters such as Titian and Palladio worked there until the end of the 1570s. Their work remained aloof from the crisis phenomena characteristic of the art of Rome and Florence. The photo shows Titian's painting "Isabella of Portugal".

Great Masters of the Renaissance

Three great Italians are the titans of the Renaissance, its worthy crown:

All their works are the best, selected pearls of world art that the Renaissance collected. Years go by, centuries change, but the creations of great masters are timeless.