Systematizer of his ideas and continuer of his teachings. And Archimandrite Sophrony, in turn, studied with Saint Silouan of Athos. Thus, through this chain of witnesses to holiness, the wisdom of the science of soul salvation reaches us. We offer readers of the site a report by Father Zacharias, read by him in Iasi on October 22, 2015.

“Spiritual life is like a sphere,” Father Sophrony often said. Just as every point on the surface of the sphere puts us in contact with the entire sphere, in exactly the same way every virtue that we cultivate makes us partakers of the fullness of the life-giving grace of God. Each of our meetings with God, each of His touches to our hearts gives us at the same time purification, enlightenment and O life, and we can fully accept these gifts even at the very beginning of our life in Him. Father Sophrony says that some people receive the first grace in the perfect measure of the saints even before they begin to struggle with their fallen nature and passions. The elder calls this grace Paschal grace, because in its light a certain way of life is revealed to us, in which we partake of the fruits of every Divine virtue.

In general, when he spoke about spiritual life, Father Sophrony was careful not to formulate schemes or draw up systems, knowing from experience that spiritual experiences cannot be delineated by the narrow boundaries of human logic, and each person has his own path to God, according to his desire for perfection. But still, sometimes Father Sophrony resorted to certain images and models in order to better illustrate his ideas regarding certain spiritual topics. Thus, noticing that certain phenomena recur in the lives of people over the centuries, he divided spiritual life into three separate stages, or periods.

The three-stage spiritual journey was envisioned in Old Testament in the life of God's people

The first stage is the visitation of the Holy Spirit, when a person enters into a covenant with God. The second is a long and difficult feat after the Lord takes His grace from us, and the last is the acquisition again and forever of the grace of salvation. The Elder often said that this three-stage spiritual journey was foreshadowed in the Old Testament in the life of God's people, Israel. The first time God visited the Jews was when he gave them the grace of passing through the Red Sea after the exodus from Egypt. Then followed 40 years of trials and suffering in the desert, when the Lord withdrew His grace from them. Finally, grace returned and they inherited the promised land.

Father Sophrony singled out these three periods primarily in order to draw attention to the second. He emphasized the need for a correct understanding of this period, as well as [the need for] an appropriate mental attitude, without which we will not be able to intelligently and profitably experience the retreat of Divine grace. The Elder wanted to encourage us to constantly seek ways to transform this time of testing into a genuine spiritual event, to look at it [the time] as a gift from God to us, and not as something that generates despair, and thus to beware of the destructive temptation of acedia. In reality, a person experiences the retreat of grace as spiritual death, a true ontological emptiness. Every time he spoke about this, Father’s main concern was how to turn this death, this state of spiritual desert into the imperishable life of God.

The elder emphasized the fact that a spiritual person, a perfect person, goes through all these three periods to the end. Having regained the grace of salvation in the third period, he can now help his own kind along this path of exploits. He acquired spiritual intelligence and, according to the word of the holy Apostle Paul, cannot be judged by anyone, because he is guided by the Spirit of God. As Father Sophrony says, the one who managed to reveal his hypostatic principle, who became a person, is able to correctly judge any experience and experience in spiritual life, knowing the secret of the path of salvation for each individual individual.

The path to becoming like God begins with visiting the first grace

Thus, the path of every Christian to perfection, to the acquisition of likeness with God, begins with a visit to the first grace. We all experienced the grace of the first period, either as infants in Holy Baptism, or later, consciously, as monks, or at monastic tonsure, or as priests at ordination, or simply in the act of our repentance, when we returned to the bosom of the Church. However, we have all lost this wondrous grace, being in the vanity of this world.

But how do we come to experience this first touch of God on our heart, the first period of grace? In His ineffable grace and mercy, God constantly looks at man as a target for His arrows, “visiting him every morning” (cf. Job 7:18), as the righteous Job says. The Lord fixes his gaze on His creation to see if he finds in his soul some trace of favor, some small gap, and waits for the moment when a person turns to Him with a little understanding and humility in order to enter and dwell in his heart . God tirelessly waits for man, knocking on the door of his heart: “Behold, I stand at the door and knock: if anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him and will dine with him, and he with Me” (Rev. 3:20 ). Thus, as soon as a person shows a little humility and gratitude, the Lord penetrates his soul, abundantly visiting him with His grace, renewing his life and reviving him spiritually.

According to Father Sophrony, the way to soften your heart and fill it with gratitude and humility before the Lord, so that it is able to accept Divine grace, is to think about God’s plan for man. In the Holy Scriptures we read that God conceived man before the creation of the world and destined him for eternal life, which means that man was already from the very beginning in the eternal council of God, in the plan of his Creator. The very manner of his calling into existence proves his greatness. God created him in His image and likeness, directly and personally, unlike other creatures, which were born only through His word. The Lord God took dust from the earth - with His own hands - and created man, breathing the breath of life into the dust. Father Sophrony often said that God in some way repeated Himself in the act of creating man and invested in his nature the power to receive the fullness of spiritual life: “He did not create anything lower than Himself” (see: Sophrony (Sakharov), archimandrite. See God as He is).

So, from all the saving work of God we see that man is truly great according to the Creator’s plan and in the grace of His salvation, and his proclamation is filled with greatness. When a person fell away from this honor, says the holy Apostle Paul, God did not leave him and continued to visit him many times and in various ways all the days of his life. Indeed, God lies in wait for a person, looking for any reason to have mercy and save him. The purpose of His search is the deep heart of man, and his appeal is a gift of His favor, which Scripture calls first love (see: Rev. 2: 4). In fact, God is constantly calling us. If you hear His voice today, do not harden your hearts and go out to meet Him. The grace of the first proclamation makes many changes in a person’s heart and reveals to him the Divine way of life.

Our first unity with God, the covenant that we make with Him when we receive the first grace, fills our heart with joy, Divine consolation and a sense of God. Father Sophrony calls it Easter joy. During this period, the Lord quickly fulfills any petition that we submit to Him; we cannot give up prayer, our heart prays incessantly, even during sleep; It is easy for us to love our neighbor, to believe in God, to stay awake. Saint Silouan says that everyone loving God can never forget Him and constantly remembers Him and prays to Him, for God Himself made a covenant with man and man with God. This first period of spiritual life is truly marvelous and full of inspiration, but its grace is an undeserved gift, entrusted to all who show the slightest humble inclination of heart. However, this means that the gift of God does not belong to man and is rather the wealth of unrighteousness.

The Gospel of Luke says: “If you have not been faithful in what belongs to others, who will give you what is yours?” (Luke 16:12). Interpreting this Gospel parable, Father Sophrony showed that the first grace was given to us freely, like some kind of spiritual capital for which we did not work and which we do not deserve. However, if we show that we are faithful to the things of God, being willing to invest this capital, to cultivate this talent, then the Lord will entrust it to us as if it were our property. If we honor and value this gift, God will eventually give it to us as an eternal possession. The Lord will give us what is ours.

How sweet are the days of our first love for God, when we easily do everything pleasing to Him! It is as if we see the Lord within ourselves, and because we see Him, we can believe in Him and follow Him. Christians can truly confess that they have seen God and know Him, although this is only partly true. When we accept the first grace, the Lord begins to paint the first features of His image in our heart. We also hear His voice when His word touches our heart and renews our spirit, but we see and know Him only in part.

The veil of flesh will only be removed when we enter into eternal life. Then in And The vision of God will become pure and clear, and thus the knowledge of Him, which we now only have in part, will be improved. If, during this transitory life, we try to constantly look at the image of Christ in our hearts, then when the window of eternity opens, we will see Him in all His fullness. If we remain closed to His grace in this life, then at the moment of death another window will open, about which I would rather remain silent.

The first period of spiritual life, however, is short-lived, for a person is not able to maintain grace and will certainly lose it sooner or later. Although Father Sophrony usually did not set boundaries for spiritual experiences, he nevertheless noticed that the period of first grace could last from several hours to, at most, seven years. Then the feat of the second period begins. Now God allows us to pass through severe temptations and trials, thus giving us an opportunity to prove our faithfulness to Him in adverse circumstances and to show our gratitude for the wonderful gifts of His grace, so that we may be counted worthy of the fullness of the spiritual life, the fullness of our inheritance.

A person’s deification occurs according to the depth and zeal with which he experienced being abandoned by God

Father Sophrony says that about O A person’s life depends on the depth and zeal with which he experienced abandonment by God, the retreat of His grace. According to the elder, the fullness of exhaustion precedes the fullness of perfection. When grace recedes, it is very important to know that O hidden behind this period of testing, understand and use its enormous spiritual potential in order to attract the gifts of God. In the light of this understanding, the time of the Lord's trial becomes inexpressibly creative, serving, however, as the foundation on which man's salvation is based. But in order not to accept the grace of God in vain, we should study with attention how it comes and for what reason it leaves us - this is a true science that teaches us to collect and store grace in our hearts. Father Sophrony emphasizes that anyone who has not experienced the experience of being abandoned by God is not only not perfect, but is not even among the believers.

One way or another, we must certainly go through the trials of this period, and there are two paths that we can take. The first path is correct, and therefore pleasing to God; through it we gain Christ and, with Him, eternity. The other is the path of idleness, negligence, self-will and pride. Grace recedes, and a time comes when a person can no longer bear the pain. The contemplation of his own spiritual poverty convinces him that outside of the Living God, the God of love, everything is meaningless, since it bears the stamp of death.

In seeking a way out of this desperate situation, he can choose one of the following two paths: the first path is to blame God and rebel. Saint Silouan was tempted by this spirit when he said: “It is impossible to bow down God.” And we know what followed - he was thrown into the depths of darkness and remained for an hour in this terrible abyss. Who is a person to talk to God like that? How dangerous is this insolence! In the evening, during Vespers, Saint Silouan, nevertheless, found within himself the strength to call on the name of the Lord, and was released. The depth of despair was transformed into a vision of the ineffable glory of Christ.

Trying to get rid of pain, we can, however, choose another path - we will be content with the successes achieved, treat things lightly and thus become careless. In this state, we can easily fall victim to temptation, and our heart begins to harden. A reasonable way to get out of this inner emptiness is revealed to us in the example of Abraham: trust in God when, humanly speaking, there is no longer any hope, and humble yourself under His strong arm. As the holy Apostle Paul says, we must place our trust in God, who raises the dead, until He raises us up in due time.

Father Sophrony shows that visiting the first grace awakens in us the hypostatic principle, that is, the ability of our being to accommodate the grace of God and acquire likeness with Him. Under the influence of this grace, we are also given a taste of the supernatural state in which man resides through the gift of the Holy Spirit, imparted to his entire being. For example, when God gives us a little contrition of heart, we feel that we have power over our nature, that we can distinguish and subordinate every thought and every movement of the heart to abstinence, and the more we accept grace, the more perfectly we dominate our nature. In other words, the renewal of a person begins simultaneously with the awakening of the hypostatic principle in him.

Although at first the effect of grace is very strong, nevertheless our nature does not submit to the great and perfect will of God. Grace draws our mind inward and reveals to us the great truths of spiritual life, but this does not mean that they immediately become ours, because we are not yet able to assimilate them. We are still fallen creatures, our nature is divided, and this internal discord becomes obvious along with the loss of grace. That part of our being in which the process of spiritual renewal has begun follows the hypostatic principle, while the other part, the old man, pulls in the opposite direction.

The vision of this internal conflict fills us with bewilderment and makes us exclaim: “How good I felt before, and how strong the prayer was! What happened to me? We do not understand that our nature is still subject to the old law. However, if we do everything in our power to stay on our feet, as the apostle says, our nature and will are harmonized with the new law of grace awakened within us by the hypostatic principle. The dynamic, gradual growth of the hypostatic principle will overcome the burden of our nature, not yet regenerated, and the mortal will be absorbed by life, so that the will of God will be established in us as the only, true law of our existence.

In confession, Father Sophrony never tried to muffle this feeling of discord inner life

The light of first grace reveals the discord in our being. In confession, Father Sophrony never tried to muffle this feeling of discord in his inner life; on the contrary, he even tried to strengthen it, knowing that those who decided to withstand this state of spiritual tension would turn their whole being to God and, overcoming the test, would inherit His grace. This internal discord may accompany us until the end of our lives, but over time the hypostatic principle will gain more and more power over our nature, reaching the point that it will control our entire being. As for perfection, it is characteristic only of saints, as the holy Apostle Paul explains to the Thessalonians.

In times of trial and spiritual dryness, remembering the moments when God visited us with His grace gives strength and helps us to renew our inspiration. Therefore we need to impress well upon our minds what we have learned while grace was palpably within us. Just as the first Christians of the Church of Ephesus were admonished by angels to remember their first love and their previous deeds (see: Rev. 2: 4), so it behooves us to remember the beauty of our first love for the Lord, the approach of God and the resurrection of our soul by His grace.

Another way to renew inspiration is to remember the life-giving words of our spiritual fathers. Sometimes Father Sophrony interrupted his reading during the meal to make some clarifications. His words were so sweet that we completely forgot about the food that stood in front of us, and the words of the Gospel sounded in our hearts: “Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God” (Matthew 4:4) .

There are many ways in which we, Orthodox Christians, can renew the grace of God within ourselves. Let us mention, among other things: the Sacrament of Confession, the Holy Liturgy, invocation of the holy name of Christ and reading Holy Scripture. In fact, everything we do in His name helps us regain grace. Father Sophrony calls Christ “the desire of our hearts”: “The true Christian is the one for whom Christ has become the “land of desires,” as we sing in the prayer service to the Mother of God, the one who seeks the Lord with an unquenchable thirst and fulfills His commandments with zeal.” The Prophet David says: “The path of Your commandments flowed when You enlarged my heart” (Ps. 119:32).

We definitely need to taste spiritual death, because only in this way will our desire for God be tested

Zeal for God gives a person the strength to overcome all trials. Thus, we absolutely need to experience abandonment by God and taste spiritual death, because only in this way will our desire for God and determination to follow Christ be tested. Will the death that threatens us turn into a source of life or will it ultimately destroy us? It depends only on us. If, during the second period, we continue to abide in what we learned when grace was with us, then our faith will appear stronger than death and conquer the world, according to the word of St. John the Evangelist.

Truly, the wealth of blessings that this time of trial holds is endless. Through numerous falls and uprisings and repeated experiences of loss of grace, we learn not to despair when broken, because we know that, in His great mercy and love, our God is “weak” and will soon bow to our call. And when our affairs go better, we humble ourselves, for we have learned from the test how difficult it is to maintain such a state.

The spirit of humility renews a person's heart, while at the same time strengthening his soul and body. Mental and spiritual strength stems from humility and faith, changing our entire being through the action of grace. In this way, our mental structure becomes stronger, and we gain a certain resilience that helps us overcome temptations.

Also, the alternation of moments of grace and spiritual dryness endows us with the gift of prudence, teaching us to distinguish between the uncreated and eternal from the created and transitory, which can accompany us beyond the grave.

But, first of all, this period of retreat of grace is an impetus to repentance, to penetrate deeper into the depths of God’s destinies and examine ourselves in the light of His commandments. Then we will read the Scriptures with understanding and use all the wisdom that God has given us to find ways to come before Him with new humble and tender thoughts, so that we can draw closer to Him. Moreover, we will discover corruption and passions buried deep within us, just as when we empty our pockets and turn them inside out, we find things forgotten or long hidden there. In the same way, God turns our heart inside out to reveal the abomination hidden in its depths. After all, we, without realizing it, carry within ourselves sinful impulses and desires that are not in harmony with God’s original plan for man and that oppose our highest goal - to love God and be like Him in everything.

Through suffering, a person learns to speak with God in a way pleasing to Him. The prayer of a person facing death stands completely apart, for he speaks from the depths of his soul, even if he is deprived of the consolation and help of grace. Whatever form the threat of death takes: illness, persecution or retreat of Divine grace, if we find the strength to stand before God and confess: “Glory to Thee, Lord! All glory is due to you, and shame to me for my sins and iniquities,” then God will make sure that our faith in Him prevails.

As we try to transform the burden of God's seeming absence into spiritual creation, that is, into an ever-new conversation, we discover new ways to humble ourselves. It is as if a transformer was working in our heart, transforming the energy of pain into the energy of prayer, the heart is touched, and we learn to place all our trust in the Divine energy of the consolation of the Holy Spirit. Indeed, the fire of passions can only be extinguished by the stronger fire of Divine consolation, which the holy Apostle Paul calls “the consolation of Divine love.”

The spirit of this world tries to ease our spiritual stress by offering us temporary material benefits as consolation. A person is able to accept the narrow path of suffering only when the Holy Master, crucified and constantly suffering in this world, touches his life.

The second period of spiritual life is therefore precious because it gives a person the experience of being condemned to death. The difficulties through which he now passes cleanse him from the arrogant tendency to deify himself and separate him from every created thing, and the pain accompanying this internal transformation opens his heart to accept Divine grace and e sharing the secrets of salvation. His soul learned to constantly remain in humility and, as Father Sophrony says, grace will love him and will never leave him. Saint Silouan writes: “Thus, the whole life of the soul learns the humility of Christ, and as long as it does not have humility, it will constantly be tormented by evil thoughts, and the humble soul finds the peace and quiet that the Lord speaks of.”

Thus, the inalienable acquisition of grace again, the crown given for the struggle carried out in the second period of spiritual life, is bestowed upon a person when he has convinced God by the faithfulness of his heart that he wants to belong only to Him. Father Sophrony said many times: “Every day I said to God: “I am yours, save me.” But who are we to say to God: “I am Yours”? First we must assure God that we belong to Him, and when we truly assure Him, we will hear His voice saying to us: “Thou art my Son, who today begat thee” (Ps. 2:7).”

The third period of spiritual life is generally short, because it opens towards the end of a person’s life, but, unlike the first, it is much richer in the blessings of God. Its characteristics are love and perseverance, as well as the deep peace that follows liberation from passions. The wounds of the second period, which we received by striking against hard rocks, will teach us to be careful not to injure ourselves again, and thus we will be better able to guard the gift entrusted to us; but, as then, we can lose it, for a person is subject to fluctuations until the end of his life.

The last period of spiritual life is the period of becoming like God. It opens towards the end of a person's life

Father Sophrony describes the last period of spiritual life as a period of becoming like God. Man was regenerated by grace, and the commandments of God were established as the only law of his being. Naturally, the fullness of Christian perfection cannot be achieved in this world. We look forward to the resurrection of the dead and the life of the next century, as we say in the Creed. But still, the seed of resurrection is sown in this life, here and now we establish a strong connection with Christ, a connection that will continue in life there. Here and now we receive the pledge of a future inheritance and the firstfruits of eternal life.

In conclusion, I would like to recall the word of Father Sophrony about prayer: “We, all the sons of Adam, need to go through this heavenly fire, which burns the roots of deadly passions. Otherwise, we will not see fire transforming into the light of new life, because in our fallen state, burning precedes enlightenment. Therefore, let us thank the Lord for the cleansing effect of His love. Amen".

Of course, no changes in society are possible without changes in spiritual life. What is expected in this area? If the possession of information turns into the most important social value, then it should increase value of education. It is possible that the priorities in the education system will change. After all, the development of the service sector, especially the humanitarian ones, requires the development of relevant branches of knowledge.

As we remember, one of the problems of modern spiritual and social life is scientism. Now it becomes obvious that science, left to its own devices, easily turns from a creative force into a destructive force. The reason is not only that it is deliberately directed towards evil. Science is neutral because its goal is to obtain knowledge. But knowledge does not and cannot say anything about how the world should be. Therefore, the growth of knowledge in itself and even its application in practice is not yet a guarantee of achievement public good. After all, we cannot predict what consequences scientific discoveries and their implementation in life will lead us to. This is why many modern thinkers believe that it is necessary connecting science with worldview. This is called "culture orientation." If the 20th century was characterized by increased specialization and separation of all spheres of spiritual life, then the 21st century may become the century of integration. This means that scientific discoveries must be determined by value guidelines, and, above all, by a clear awareness of the consequences that scientific research can entail.

Changing the place and nature of scientific research is impossible without changing the value guidelines themselves. After all, the development of science was and is largely determined by the desire for an uncontrolled growth of needs, and these needs were reduced to material ones. As a result, production is carried out at maximum capacity. And this leads to unprecedented pressure on nature, which remains the main source of all created benefits. That is why modern thinkers talk about the need to change the nature of needs. The speech must go about orientation towards the production and consumption of cultural and environmental goods.

One of the reasons for global problems and international conflicts was and is the stable idea that there are cultures that are higher and lower in terms of their level of development. This often led to industrial civilizations seeking to impose their way of life, which they considered progressive, on other peoples and cultures. Therefore, many thinkers believe that the post-industrial world should be built on principles of tolerance, openness and dialogue of cultures. The existence of a new world must be based on the value of diversity. It allows you to take into account and harmonize the interests of different cultures, as well as enrich your world and your way of life with original achievements from other worlds.

The processes taking place in the modern world require not only the coordination of interests, but also integration at the level of the world community. The fact is that existing global problems cannot be solved by individual states. Therefore there is a need creation of intergovernmental and non-governmental global public organizations who could coordinate their efforts internationally. And this is only possible when the value of any culture is recognized.

2. Researchers believe that the characteristic features of the new civilization are: in economics - globalization, the transition from the production of goods to the production of services, the individualization of consumption, the transformation of information into the main resource for economic development; in social life – the growth of telecommunication systems, the possession and control of information as a condition high status, growth of social differentiation, transition from a status-role system to an orientation towards the implementation of individual biographies and life style, transition from hierarchy to a network society; V political life– search for new forms of the world community to solve global problems; the struggle for equality of various social minorities in societies; in spiritual life - increasing the value of education; refusal to consume to the limit of possibilities, overcoming the isolation of science from the forms of worldview, growing tolerance and openness to dialogue with different types of cultures.

Control questions

1. What is the significance and features of information for the development of economics and social life?

2. What is “lifestyle orientation” and when does it become possible?

3. What are the features of the “network society”?

(answer only “yes” and “no”)

1. In a post-industrial society, services aimed at an individualized circle of consumers will be of decisive importance.

2. The lack of natural resources is and will be the main obstacle to the growth of abundance of goods.

3. In a post-industrial society, the value will be on the individuality and originality of a person and culture as a whole, and not on compliance with the standards of even the most developed countries in the world.

4. Post-industrial society is characterized by a solution to the problem of survival as freedom from hunger and disease.

5. Post-industrial society represents a quantitative increase in all the basic properties of industrial society.

The changes in the spiritual and political life of Soviet society that began after Stalin's death were called the "thaw". The appearance of this term is associated with the publication in 1954 of the story I. G. Ehrenburg "Thaw"in response to the call of the critic V. M. Pomerantsev to put man at the center of attention of literature, to "raise the true theme of life, to introduce into novels the conflicts that occupy people in everyday life." The spiritual life of society during the period of Khrushchev's "thaw" was of a contradictory nature. On the one hand On the other hand, de-Stalinization and the opening of the "Iron Curtain" caused the revival of society, the development of culture, science and education. At the same time, the desire of the party and state bodies to put culture at the service of the official ideology remained.

development of science and education

In the middle of the twentieth century. science has become a leading factor in the development of social production. The main directions of science in the world were complex automation of production, management and control based on the widespread use of computers; creation and introduction into production of new types of structural materials; discovery and use of new types of energy.

The Soviet Union succeeded in 1953-1964. achieve major scientific achievements in nuclear energy, rocket science, and space exploration. 27th of June 1954 The first in the world began to operate in Obninsk, Kaluga region industrial nuclear power plant. The scientific supervisor of the work on its creation was I.V. Kurchatov, the chief designer of the reactor was N.A. Dollezhal, and the scientific supervisor of the project was D.I. Blokhintsev.

Nuclear power plant of the USSR Academy of Sciences. in Obninsk, Kaluga region.

The 4th of October 1957 the world's first was launched in the USSR artificial earth satellite. A group of scientists led by S. P. Korolev and consisting of: M. V. Keldysh, M. K. Tikhonravov, N. S. Lidorenko, G. Yu. Maksimova, V. I. Lapko, B. S. worked on its creation Chekunova, A. V. Bukhtiyarova.

Postage stamps of the USSR

Launched the same year nuclear icebreaker"Lenin"- the world's first surface vessel with a nuclear power plant. The chief designer was V.I. Neganov, the scientific supervisor of the work was Academician A.P. Aleksandrov; The nuclear plant was designed under the leadership of I. I. Afrikantov.

IN 1961 the first in history was carried out human space flight; it was a Soviet pilot-cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin. The ship "Vostok", on which Gagarin flew around the Earth, was created by the leading designer O. G. Ivanovsky under the leadership of the general designer of OKB-1 S. P. Koroleva. In 1963, the first flight of female cosmonaut V. I. Tereshkova took place.

Yu. A. Gagarin S. P. Korolev

IN 1955 serial production of the world's first turbojet passenger aircraft began at the Kharkov aircraft plant" TU-104". The design of new, ultra-high-speed aircraft was carried out by aircraft designers A. N. Tupolev and S. V. Ilyushin.

Airplane "TU-104"

The entry of the Soviet Union into the era of the scientific and technological revolution was marked by the expansion of the network of scientific research institutions. A. N. Nesmeyanov, a leading organic chemist, opened the Institute of Organoelement Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1954. In May 1957, in order to develop the productive forces of Siberia and Far East The Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was organized. In March 1956 An international research center was created in Dubna - Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in order to study the fundamental properties of matter. Famous physicists A.P. Aleksandrov, D.I. Blokhintsev, I.V. Kurchatov took part in the formation of JINR. Moscow region appeared scientific centers in Protvino, Obninsk and Troitsk. I. L. Knunyants, a famous Soviet organic chemist, founded scientific school organofluorine

Synchrophasotron, built at JINR in Dubna in 1957.

Significant achievements were made in the development of radiophysics, electronics, theoretical and chemical physics, and chemistry. Were awarded Nobel Prize for his work in the field of quantum electronics A. M. Prokhorov And N. G. Basov- together with the American physicist C. Townes. A number of Soviet scientists ( L. D. Landau in 1962; P. A. Cherenkov, I. M. Frank And I. E. Tamm, all in 1958) received Nobel Prizes in physics, which indicated recognition of the contribution of Soviet science to the world. N. N. Semenov(together with the American researcher S. Hinshelwood) became the only Soviet Nobel laureate in chemistry in 1956.

After the XX Congress of the CPSU, the opportunity to study closed documents, which contributed to the emergence of interesting publications on Russian history: “Essays on historical science in the USSR”, “History of the Great Patriotic War Soviet Union. 1941-1945" and the magazine "History of the USSR"

A characteristic feature of the “thaw” was heated scientific discussions. The agricultural crisis, disappointment in the economic councils, and the need to find balanced solutions to a large number of problems contributed to the revival of economic thought in the USSR. In the scientific discussions of economists, two directions have emerged. Leningrad scientists were at the head of the theoretical direction L. V. Kantorovich And V. V. Novozhilov who advocated widespread use mathematical methods in planning. The second direction - practices - demanded greater independence for enterprises, less rigid and mandatory planning, allowing the development of market relations. A group of scientists began to study the economy of the West. However, historians, philosophers, and economists could not completely free themselves from certain ideological attitudes.

L. V. Kantorovich

Official Soviet propaganda viewed the achievements of Soviet science not only as symbols of scientific and technological progress, but also as proof of the advantages of socialism. It was not possible to fully ensure the implementation of a radical restructuring of the technical foundations of material production in the USSR. What became the reason for the country’s technical lag in subsequent years in the most promising areas.

During the Thaw, much attention was paid to secondary and higher education; fees in universities and technical schools were abolished. According to the All-Union Population Census of 1959, 43% of the population had higher, secondary and incomplete secondary education. New universities were opened in Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Nalchik and other cities.

Prestige grew higher education, especially engineering, while the attractiveness of blue-collar professions for school graduates began to decline. To change the situation, measures were taken to bring the school closer to production. December 1958 d. universal compulsory 7-year education was replaced by compulsory 8-year education. Eight-year graduates could graduate from a vocational school (vocational school) or technical school to obtain a complete secondary education and a working specialty.

At a school car lesson

In senior secondary school, compulsory industrial practice was introduced. However, the choice of professions offered at the school (cook, seamstress, car mechanic, etc.) was narrow and did not allow one to obtain the training necessary for modern production. In addition, the lack of funds did not make it possible to equip schools with modern equipment, and enterprises could not fully bear the teaching load. In 1964, due to the ineffectiveness of school reform and overload of curriculum, they returned to ten-year school education.

literature

The focus of writers in the 1950s. turned out to be a man, his spiritual values, everyday life conflicts. Novels were devoted to scientific research, search, and the struggle between seekers, principled scientists and untalented people, careerists, and bureaucrats. D. A. Granina(“The Searchers”, “I’m Going into the Storm”). In the spotlight Yu. P. German(novel-trilogy “The Cause You Serve”, 1957, “My Dear Man”, 1961, “I am Responsible for Everything”, 1964) - the formation of a person of high ideology and civic activity.

Interesting works appeared about the life of the post-war village (essays by V.V. Ovechkin “District Everyday Life” and “Notes of an Agronomist” by G.N. Troepolsky). They wrote in the genre of village prose during the “thaw” years V. I. Belov, V. G. Rasputin, F. A. Abramov, early V. M. Shukshin, V. P. Astafiev, S. P. Zalygin. The works of young writers (Yu. V. Trifonov, V. V. Lipatov) about young contemporaries formed the “urban” prose.

V. Shukshin and V. Belov

"Lieutenant" prose continued to develop. Writers who went through the war ( Yu. V. Bondarev, K. D. Vorobyov, V. V. Bykov, B. L. Vasiliev, G. Ya. Baklanov, K. M. Simonov), who rethought their experience, reflected on the worldview of a person in war, on the price of victory.

During the process of de-Stalinization, the topic of repression was raised in the literature. The novel caused a great public outcry V. D. Dudintseva"Not by Bread Alone", 1956, story A. I. Solzhenitsyn"One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich", 1962.

November 18, 1962 magazine " New world" publishes the story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" by A. I. Solzhenitsyn

The popularity of young poets grew: E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. Sh. Okudzhava, B. A. Akhmadulina, R.I. Rozhdestvensky. In their work they turned to their contemporaries and modern themes. Greater attraction in the 1960s. had poetry evenings at the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow. Poetry readings at the Luzhniki stadium in 1962 attracted 14 thousand people.

E. A. Evtushenko B.A. Akhmadulina A. A. Voznesensky

The revitalization of cultural life contributed to the emergence of new literary and artistic magazines: “Yunost”, “Neva”, “Our Contemporary”, “Foreign Literature”, “Moscow”. The magazine "New World" (editor-in-chief A. T. Tvardovsky) published works of democratically minded writers and poets. It was on its pages that Solzhenitsyn's works saw the light of day ("One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", 1962, "Matrenin's Dvor" and "An Incident at Krechetovka Station", 1963). The magazine became a refuge for anti-Stalinist forces in literature, a symbol of the “sixties,” and an organ of legal opposition to Soviet power.

Some cultural figures of the 1930s were rehabilitated: I. E. Babel, B. A. Pilnyak, the banned poems of S. A. Yesenin, A. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva appeared in print.

However, the “thaw” in the cultural life of the country had certain limits established by the authorities. Any manifestations of dissent were destroyed by censorship. This is what happened with B.C. Grossman, the author of “Stalingrad Sketches” and the novel “For a Just Cause.” The manuscript of the novel “Life and Fate” about the tragedy of the people plunged into war in 1960 was seized from the author by state security agencies. This work was published in the USSR only during the years of perestroika.

From the document (From N. S. Khrushchev’s speeches to literary and artistic figures):

...It does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for things to take their course, that the reins of government have been weakened, that the social ship is sailing at the will of the waves and everyone can be willful and behave as they please. No. The party has and will firmly pursue the Leninist course it developed, uncompromisingly opposing any ideological vacillation...

At the end of the 1950s. Literary samizdat arose - typewritten or handwritten publications of uncensored works of translated foreign and domestic authors, and tamizdat - works of Soviet authors printed abroad. B. L. Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago" about the fate of the intelligentsia during the years of revolution and the Civil War was first distributed in samizdat lists. After the publication of the novel in the magazine "New World" was prohibited, the book was transferred abroad, where it was published in November 1957 in Italian translation. In 1958, Pasternak received the Nobel Prize in Literature for the novel. In the USSR, not without the knowledge of N. S. Khrushchev, a campaign of persecution of the writer was organized. He was expelled from the USSR Writers' Union and demanded to leave the country. Pasternak refused to leave the USSR, but under pressure from the authorities he was forced to refuse the prize.

At the Pasternak dacha on the day the Nobel Prize was awarded: E. Ts. and K. I. Chukovsky, B. L. and Z. N. Pasternak. Peredelkino. October 24, 1958

The “Pasternak case” became a signal for a new tightening of censorship. In the early 1960s. There was a strengthening of ideological dictates in the field of literature, and even greater impatience with dissent appeared. In 1963, at an official meeting of the party leadership with the creative intelligentsia in the Kremlin, Khrushchev sharply criticized the poet A. Voznesensky and invited him to emigrate from the country.

Theater, music, cinema

In Moscow, new theaters began to operate: Sovremennik under the direction of O. N. Efremov (1957) and the Taganka Drama and Comedy Theater under the direction of Yu. P. Lyubimov (1964), the performances of which were extremely popular with the audience. IN theatrical productions the young groups of Sovremennik and Taganka reflected the mood of the era of the sixties: a heightened sense of responsibility for the fate of the country, an active civic position.

Sovremennik Theater

Domestic cinematography has achieved great success. Films about the ordinary fate of a person in war were released: “The Cranes Are Flying” (dir. M.K. Kalatozov), “The Ballad of a Soldier” (G.I. Chukhrai). Kalatozov's "The Cranes Are Flying" became the only Soviet full-length film to receive the Palme d'Or prize at the Cannes Film Festival in 1958.

Still from the film "The Cranes Are Flying"

In the best films of the early 1960s. The topic of searching for a life path by the younger generation was raised: “I am walking around Moscow” (dir. G. N. Daneliya), “Ilyich’s Outpost” (dir. M. M. Khutsiev), “Nine Days of One Year” (dir. M. I . Romm). Many artists were able to travel abroad. In 1959, the Moscow Film Festival was resumed. After the Caribbean crisis, exposure of the “ideological vacillations” of literary and artistic figures intensified. Thus, the party and state leaders received a disapproving assessment Feature Film M. M. Khutsiev "Ilyich's Outpost", one of the symbols of the "Thaw" era about the youth of the sixties.

From the document (S. N. Khrushchev. Trilogy about the father):

How does this happen to strong natures, the father himself seemed to sense the weakness of his position and this made him even harsher and more irreconcilable. I was once present during a conversation about the film "Ilyich's Outpost" directed by Marlen Khutsiev. The whole style and aggressiveness of this analysis made a painful impression on me, which I remember to this day. On the way home (the meeting took place in the Reception House on Vorobyovskoe Highway, we lived nearby, behind the fence), I objected to my father, it seemed to me that there was nothing anti-Soviet in the film, moreover, it was Soviet and at the same time high-quality. The father remained silent. The next day, the analysis of "Ilyich's Outpost" continued. Taking the floor, the father complained that the ideological the fight is on in difficult conditions and even at home, he does not always meet with understanding.

Yesterday, Sergei, my son, convinced me that we were wrong in our attitude towards this film,” said the father and, looking around the darkness of the hall, asked: “Right?”

I sat in the back rows. I had to get up.

So, it’s true, the film is good,” I said, stuttering with excitement. This was my first experience of participating in such a large meeting. However, my intercession only added fuel to the fire; one after another, speakers denounced the director for his ideological immaturity. The film had to be remade, the best parts cut out, it received a new name “We are twenty years old.”

Gradually, I became more and more convinced that my father was tragically mistaken and was losing his authority. However, doing anything was far from easy. It was necessary to choose a moment, carefully express my opinion to him, try to convince him of the harmfulness of such categorical judgments. In the end, he must realize that he is hitting his political allies, those who support his cause.

Since the late 1950s. Neo-folklorism developed in Soviet music. In 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “From the Heart”. Ideological charges against composers S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian were dropped. In 1955–1956 In the USA there were tours of outstanding Soviet musicians: D. F. Oistrakh and M. L. Rostropovich.

Songs written for the VI World Festival of Youth and Students were popular among Soviet people: " Moscow Nights"(V. Solovyov-Sedoy, M. Matusovsky) performed by V. Troshin and E. Piekha, "If only the guys of the whole Earth..." (V. Solovyov-Sedoy, E. Dolmatovsky), "Moscow Dawns..." (A. Ostrovsky, M. Lisyansky), “The guitar is ringing over the river...” (L. Oshanin, A. Novikov), etc. During this period, creative activity composers E. Denisov, A. Petrov, A. Schnittke, R. Shedrin, A. Eshpai. The works of G. Sviridov and the songs of A. Pakhmutova based on the poems of N. Dobronravov were extremely popular.

In the formation of the spiritual atmosphere at the turn of the 1950s-60s. copyright played an important role song creativity. The audience of B. Sh. Okudzhava, N. N. Matveeva, Yu. I. Vizbor, Yu. Ch. Kim, A. A. Galich was the young generation of “physicists” and “lyricists” who argued about the problems of scientific and technological progress and humanistic values.

B. Okudzhava A. Galich

painting, architecture, sculpture

In the late 1950s - early 1960s. In the works of sixties artists from the youth section of the Moscow branch of the Union of Artists, we reflected the workdays of our contemporaries, the so-called “severe style” arose. Paintings by representatives of the “severe style” V. E. Popkov, N. I. Andronov, T. T. Salakhov, P. P. Ossovsky, V. I. Ivanov and others sang the fate of their contemporaries, their energy and will, the “heroics of labor everyday life."

V. Popkov. Builders of Bratsk

On December 1, 1962, N. S. Khrushchev visited the anniversary exhibition of the Moscow organization of the Union of Artists in the Manege. He launched rude, incompetent attacks on the young avant-garde painters of E. M. Belyutin’s studio: T. Ter-Ghevondyan, A. Safokhin, L. Gribkov, V. Zubarev, V. Preobrazhenskaya. The next day, the Pravda newspaper published a devastating report, which served as the beginning of a campaign against formalism and abstractionism in the USSR.

From the document (From Khrushchev’s speech during a visit to the exhibition in Manege on December 1, 1962):

...Well, I don’t understand, comrades! So he says: “sculpture”. Here he is - the Unknown. Is this a sculpture? Excuse me!... At the age of 29, I was in a position where I felt responsible for the country, for our party. And you? You are 29 years old! Do you still feel like you are walking around in short trousers? No, you're already wearing your pants! And therefore answer!…

If you don’t want to keep up with us, get a passport, leave... We won’t send you to prison! Please! Do you like the west? Please!...Let's imagine it. Does it evoke any feeling? I want to spit! These are the feelings it evokes.

...You will say: everyone plays, so to speak, their own game. musical instrument- this will be the orchestra? It's a cacophony! This... This will be a madhouse! This will be jazz! Jazz! Jazz! I don’t want to offend the blacks, but, uh, in my opinion, this is black music... Who will fly to this roast that you want to show? Who? Flies that rush to carrion! Here they are, you know, huge, fat... So they flew!.. Anyone who wants to please our enemies can take up this weapon...

Monumentalism flourishes in sculpture. In 1957, a sculptural group by E. V. Vuchetich “Let’s Beat Swords into Plowshares” appeared near the UN building in New York. Military theme was represented by sculptural portraits of commanders created in Soviet cities by E. V. Vuchetich, N. V. Tomsky, the best masters of this genre.

"Let's beat swords into ploughshares" Sculptor - Vuchetich E. V.

Soviet sculptors at this time depicted historical figures and cultural figures. S. M. Orlov, A. P. Antropov and N. L. Stamm are the authors of the monument to Yuri Dolgorukov in Moscow in front of the Moscow City Council building (1953-1954); A.P. Kibalnikov completes work on the monument to Chernyshevsky in Saratov (1953) and V. Mayakovsky in Moscow (1958). Sculptor M.K. Anikushin in a realistic manner executed the monument to A.S. Pushkin, installed on Arts Square in Leningrad, near the building of the Russian Museum.

Monument to Pushkin. Sculptor M. K. Anikushin

During the Thaw period, the work of the sculptor E. Neizvestny went beyond the framework of socialist realism: “Suicide” (1958), “Adam” (1962-1963), “Effort” (1962), “Mechanical Man” (1961-1962), “Two-Headed giant with an egg" (1963. In 1962, at the exhibition in Manege, Neizvestny was Khrushchev's guide. After the destruction of the exhibition, he was not exhibited for several years; his disgrace ended only with Khrushchev's resignation.

E. Neizvestny Tombstone monument to N. S. Khrushchev by E. Neizvestny

After Stalin's death, a new stage in the development of Soviet architecture begins. In 1955, a resolution was adopted by the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR “On the elimination of excesses in design and construction”, “contrary to the democratic spirit of life and culture of our society.” The Stalinist Empire style was replaced by functional standard Soviet architecture, which, with certain changes, was preserved until the collapse of the USSR. According to this principle, the districts of Khimki-Khovrino (architect K. Alabyan) and the quarters of the South-West of Moscow (architects Y. Belopolsky, E. Stamo, etc.), the Dachnoe district of Leningrad (architect V. Kamensky, A. Zhuk, A. Macheret), microdistricts and neighborhoods in Vladivostok, Minsk, Kyiv, Vilnius, Ashgabat. During the years of mass construction of five-story panel buildings, standard designs and cheap building materials “without architectural frills” were used.

State Kremlin Palace

In 1961, the Yunost Hotel was built in Moscow (architects Yu. Arndt, T. Bausheva, V. Burovin, T. Vladimirova; engineers N. Dykhovichnaya, B. Zarkhi, I. Mishchenko) using the same large panels , which were used in housing construction, the cinema "Russia" ("Pushkinsky") with its extended visor. One of the best public buildings of this time was the State Kremlin Palace, 1959-1961 (architect M. Posokhin), during the construction of which the problem of combining a modern building with historical architectural ensembles was rationally solved. In 1963, the construction of the Palace of Pioneers in Moscow was completed, which is a complex of several buildings of different heights, united by a spatial composition.

EXPANDING CULTURAL RELATIONS

The liberalization of socio-political life was accompanied by the expansion of international cultural relations. In 1955, the first issue of the journal "Foreign Literature" was published. It became the only opportunity for Soviet readers to get acquainted with the work of many major Western writers, whose books were not published in the USSR for censorship reasons.

In October 1956 in Moscow at the Museum. Pushkin I. Ehrenburg organized an exhibition of paintings by P. Picasso. For the first time in the USSR, paintings by one of the most famous artists of the 20th century were shown. In December of the same year, Picasso's works were sent to Leningrad, to the Hermitage, where the exhibition provoked a student rally in the city center. Students publicly shared their impressions.

Poster of the VI World Festival of Youth and Students

In July 1957, the VI World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Moscow, the symbol of which was the Dove of Peace invented by P. Picasso. The forum became in every sense a significant event for Soviet boys and girls; for the first time they became acquainted with the youth culture of the West.

In 1958, the first International Competition named after. P.I. Tchaikovsky. The victory was won by the young American pianist H. Van Cliburn, a graduate of the Juilliard School, where he studied with R. Levina, a Russian pianist who left Russia in 1907. In America, they wrote about his victory like this: “he became unexpectedly famous, winning the Tchaikovsky Prize in Moscow in 1958, became the first American to triumph in Russia, where he became the early favorite; upon his return to New York he was greeted as the hero of a mass demonstration."

Winner of the competition. Tchaikovsky H. Van Cliburn

The first foreign tours of the Bolshoi and Kirov theater groups caused a great resonance in world musical life. M. M. Plisetskaya, E. S. Maksimova, V. V. Vasiliev, I. A. Kolpakova, N. I. Bessmertnova. In the late 1950s - early 1960s. ballet has become business card"Soviet art abroad.

M. Plisetskaya

In general, the “thaw” period became a beneficial time for Russian culture. Spiritual uplift contributed to the development of creativity of literary and artistic figures of the new generation. The expansion of scientific and cultural contacts with foreign countries contributed to the humanization of Soviet society and the increase in its intellectual potential.

"Not by bread alone"

K. M. Simonov

"The Living and the Dead"

V. P. Aksenov

"Star Ticket", "It's time, my friend, it's time"

A. I. Solzhenitsyn

"One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich"

B. L. Pasternak

"Doctor Zhivago"