Water- the most unique and interesting substance on Earth. One of the most common compounds in nature, which plays an extremely important role in the processes occurring on Earth. Water plays a vital role in the geological history of the Earth and the emergence of life, in the formation of the physical and chemical environment, climate and weather on Earth. Water molecules have also been recorded in interstellar space, it is part of comets, etc.

Despite the achievements of modern science, scientists still do not know all the secrets of this seemingly simple substance! For quite a long time, people on Earth considered water to be a simple indivisible substance. And only in 1766, the English scientist G. Cavendish discovered that water is not a simple indivisible element, but a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. After G. Cavendish, the same discovery was made by the French scientist A. Lavoisier in 1783.

Behind the chemical formula H 2 O lies a unique substance that science still cannot solve. Water- a simple chemical compound in which 11.11% hydrogen and 88.89% (by mass) oxygen. Chemically pure water is a colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid.

Let's look at the unique and anomalous properties of water.

Water- the only liquid on Earth in which the dependence of specific heat capacity on temperature has a minimum. This minimum is observed at a temperature of +35 0 C. At the same time, the normal temperature of the human body, which consists of two-thirds (and even more at a young age) of water, is in the temperature range of 36-38 0 C.

Heat capacity of water abnormally high. To heat a certain amount of it by one degree, it is necessary to expend more energy than when heating other liquids.

Specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/(kg 0 C) at 0 0 C. The specific heat of fusion when ice transitions into a liquid state is 330 kJ/kg, the specific heat of vaporization is 2250 kJ/kg at normal pressure and a temperature of 100 0 C.

Having considered the above properties, it can be argued that water has a unique ability to retain heat. The vast majority of other substances do not have this property. This feature of water allows a person to maintain normal body temperature at the same level in both heat and cold. Heated by solar energy during the day, the water of the seas and oceans absorbs a huge amount of heat, cooling at night and releasing it to the atmosphere.

From all of the above it follows that water plays a major role in the processes of regulating human heat exchange and allows him to maintain a comfortable state with a minimum of energy costs.

Due to the large heat capacity and latent heat of transformation of water, its huge volumes on the Earth's surface are heat accumulators. All these properties of water determine its use in industry as a coolant. The thermal characteristics of water are one of the most important factors in the stability of the biosphere.

Density- another uniqueness of water. The density of most liquids, crystals and gases decreases when heated and increases when cooled, until the process of crystallization or condensation. The density of water when cooled from 100 to 3.98 0 C increases, as with the vast majority of liquids. But, having reached its maximum value at a temperature of 3.98 0 C, the density begins to decrease with further cooling of the water. In other words, the maximum density of water is observed at a temperature of 3.98 0 C, and not at the freezing point of 0 0 C.

The freezing of water is accompanied by an abrupt decrease in density by 9%, while for most other substances the crystallization process is accompanied by an increase in density. In this regard, ice occupies a larger volume than liquid water and remains on its surface.

This unusual behavior of water density is extremely important for maintaining life on Earth. Covering the water from above, ice plays in nature the role of a kind of floating blanket, protecting rivers and reservoirs from further freezing and preserving life in the underwater world. If the density of water increased when it froze, the ice would be heavier than water and begin to sink, which would lead to the death of all living creatures in rivers, lakes and oceans, which would freeze completely, turning into blocks of ice, and the Earth would become an ice desert, which is inevitable would lead to the death of all living things.

Of all liquids, water has the highest surface tension. If you consider all the substances on Earth, only a metal called mercury has a higher surface tension than water.

The surface tension coefficient σ, N/m of some liquids at a temperature of 20 0 C is given in the table below.

Water- the strongest universal solvent. If given enough time, it can dissolve almost any solid substance. It is precisely because of the unique dissolving ability of water that no one has yet managed to obtain chemically pure water - it always contains dissolved material from the vessel. Having gone through the entire cycle, water dissolves rocks, metals, and organic substances on its way. Therefore, water contains all the elements of Mendeleev’s periodic table, gases, bases, salts, acids. Water manifests itself as a universal solvent due to its high dielectric constant, which is 80 times greater than that of air.

Since a person consists of two-thirds water, it is naturally absolutely necessary for all key human life support systems. Water is contained in our blood (79%) and contributes to the transport through the circulatory system in a dissolved state of thousands of substances necessary for life. Water is contained in lymph (96%), which carries nutrients from the intestines to the tissues of a living organism.

Indeed, looking at the properties of water, we can conclude that any of the properties of water is unique. Only water is the only substance on the planet that can simultaneously be in three states - liquid, solid and gaseous.

Academician Vernadsky wrote: “Water stands apart in the history of our planet. There is no natural body that could compare with it in its influence on the course of the main, most ambitious geological processes. There is no earthly substance - a mineral, a rock, a living body that does not have it concluded. All earthly matter is permeated and embraced by it."

It is advisable to periodically use the listed drugs for all people after 40 years of age for prophylaxis 1-2 times a year, after 50 years of age - 2-3 times a year. Other medications are as needed.

How to take peptides

Since each peptide bioregulator targets a specific organ and does not affect other organs and tissues, the simultaneous use of drugs with different effects is not only not contraindicated, but is often recommended (up to 6-7 drugs at a time).
Peptides are compatible with any medications and biological additives. While taking peptides, it is advisable to gradually reduce the dose of concomitantly taken medications, which will have a positive effect on the patient’s body.

Short regulatory peptides do not undergo transformation in the gastrointestinal tract, so they can be safely, easily and simply used in encapsulated form by almost everyone.

Peptides in the gastrointestinal tract break down into di- and tri-peptides. Further breakdown to amino acids occurs in the intestines. This means that the peptides can be taken even without a capsule. This is very important when a person for some reason cannot swallow capsules. The same applies to severely weakened people or children, when the dosage needs to be reduced.

Peptide bioregulators can be taken for both preventive and therapeutic purposes.

Efficiency natural(PC) is 2-2.5 times lower than encapsulated. Therefore, their use for medicinal purposes should be longer (up to six months). Liquid peptide complexes are applied to the inner surface of the forearm in the projection of the veins or on the wrist and rub until completely absorbed. After 7-15 minutes, the peptides bind to dendritic cells, which carry out their further transport to the lymph nodes, where the peptides undergo a “transplant” and are sent through the bloodstream to the desired organs and tissues. Although peptides are proteins, their molecular weight is much smaller than that of proteins, so they easily penetrate the skin. The penetration of peptide drugs is further improved by their lipophilization, that is, their connection with a fatty base, which is why almost all peptide complexes for external use contain fatty acids.

Not long ago, the world's first series of peptide drugs appeared for sublingual use—

A fundamentally new method of application and the presence of a number of peptides in each of the drugs provide them with the fastest and most effective action. This drug, entering the sublingual space with a dense network of capillaries, is able to penetrate directly into the bloodstream, bypassing absorption through the mucous membrane of the digestive tract and primary metabolic decontamination of the liver. Taking into account direct entry into the systemic bloodstream, the rate of onset of the effect is several times higher than the rate when taking the drug orally.

Revilab SL line- these are complex synthesized drugs containing 3-4 components of very short chains (2-3 amino acids each). The concentration of peptides is the average between encapsulated peptides and PC in solution. In terms of speed of action, it occupies a leading position, because is absorbed and hits the target very quickly.
It makes sense to introduce this line of peptides at the initial stage, and then switch to natural peptides.

Another innovative series is a line of multicomponent peptide drugs. The line includes 9 drugs, each of which contains a number of short peptides, as well as antioxidants and building material for cells. An ideal option for those who do not like to take many medications, but prefer to get everything in one capsule.

The action of these new generation bioregulators is aimed at slowing down the aging process, maintaining a normal level of metabolic processes, preventing and correcting various conditions; rehabilitation after serious illnesses, injuries and operations.

Peptides in cosmetology

External skin aging depends on many factors: lifestyle, stress, sunlight, mechanical irritants, climatic fluctuations, fad diets, etc. With age, the skin becomes dehydrated, loses elasticity, becomes rough, and a network of wrinkles and deep furrows appears on it. We all know that the process of natural aging is natural and irreversible. It is impossible to resist it, but it can be slowed down thanks to revolutionary cosmetology ingredients - low molecular weight peptides.

The uniqueness of peptides is that they freely pass through the stratum corneum into the dermis to the level of living cells and capillaries. Skin restoration occurs deep from the inside and, as a result, the skin retains its freshness for a long time. There is no addiction to peptide cosmetics - even if you stop using it, the skin will simply age physiologically.

Cosmetic giants are creating more and more “miracle” products. We trustingly buy and use, but no miracle happens. We blindly believe the labels on the cans, not realizing that this is often just a marketing technique.

For example, most cosmetic companies are busy producing and advertising anti-wrinkle creams with collagen as the main ingredient. Meanwhile, scientists have concluded that collagen molecules are so large that they simply cannot penetrate the skin. They settle on the surface of the epidermis and are then washed off with water. That is, when buying creams with collagen, we are literally throwing money down the drain.

Another popular active ingredient in anti-aging cosmetics is resveratrol. It really is a powerful antioxidant and immunostimulant, but only in the form of microinjections. If you rub it into the skin, a miracle will not happen. It has been experimentally proven that creams with resveratrol have virtually no effect on collagen production.

NPCRIZ, in collaboration with scientists from the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, has developed a unique peptide series of cellular cosmetics (based on natural peptides) and a series (based on synthesized peptides).

They are based on a group of peptide complexes with different application points that have a powerful and visible rejuvenating effect on the skin. As a result of application, skin cell regeneration, blood circulation and microcirculation are stimulated, as well as the synthesis of the collagen-elastin framework of the skin. All this manifests itself in lifting, as well as improving the texture, color and moisture of the skin.

Currently, 16 types of creams have been developed, incl. anti-aging and for problematic skin (with thymus peptides), for the face against wrinkles and for the body against stretch marks and scars (with peptides of bone-cartilaginous tissue), against spider veins (with vascular peptides), anti-cellulite (with liver peptides), for eyelids from swelling and dark circles (with peptides of the pancreas, blood vessels, osteochondral tissue and thymus), against varicose veins (with peptides of blood vessels and osteochondral tissue), etc. All creams, in addition to peptide complexes, contain other powerful active ingredients. It is important that the creams do not contain chemical components (preservatives, etc.).

The effectiveness of peptides has been proven in numerous experimental and clinical studies. Of course, to look great, creams alone are not enough. You need to rejuvenate your body from the inside, using from time to time various complexes of peptide bioregulators and micronutrients.

The line of cosmetics with peptides, in addition to creams, also includes shampoo, mask and hair conditioner, decorative cosmetics, tonics, serums for the skin of the face, neck and décolleté, etc.

It should also be taken into account that the sugar consumed significantly affects the appearance.
Due to a process called glycation, sugar has a damaging effect on the skin. Excess sugar increases the rate of collagen degradation, which leads to wrinkles.

To combat glycation, inhibit protein degradation and age-related skin changes, the company has developed an anti-aging drug with a powerful deglycating and antioxidant effect. The action of this product is based on stimulating the deglycation process, which affects the deep processes of skin aging and helps smooth out wrinkles and increase its elasticity. The drug includes a powerful anti-glycation complex - rosemary extract, carnosine, taurine, astaxanthin and alpha-lipoic acid.

Are peptides a panacea for old age?

The scientist claims that peptide complexes have enormous restorative potential. But elevating them to the rank of a panacea and attributing non-existent properties to peptides (most likely for commercial reasons) is categorically wrong!

Taking care of your health today means giving yourself a chance to live tomorrow. We ourselves must improve our lifestyle - exercise, give up bad habits, eat better. And of course, whenever possible, use peptide bioregulators that help maintain health and increase life expectancy.

Peptide bioregulators, developed by Russian scientists several decades ago, became available to the general consumer only in 2010. Gradually more and more people around the world are learning about them. The secret of maintaining the health and youthfulness of many famous politicians, artists, and scientists lies in the use of peptides. Here are just a few of them:
UAE Minister of Energy Sheikh Saeed,
President of Belarus Lukashenko,
Former President of Kazakhstan Nazarbayev,
King of Thailand
pilot-cosmonaut G.M. Grechko and his wife L.K. Grechko,
artists: V. Leontyev, E. Stepanenko and E. Petrosyan, L. Izmailov, T. Povaliy, I. Kornelyuk, I. Wiener (rhythmic gymnastics coach) and many, many others...
Peptide bioregulators are used by athletes of 2 Russian Olympic teams - in rhythmic gymnastics and rowing. The use of drugs allows us to increase the stress resistance of our gymnasts and contributes to the success of the team at international championships.

If in our youth we can afford to do health prevention periodically, whenever we want, then with age, unfortunately, we do not have such luxury. And if you don’t want to be in such a state tomorrow that your loved ones will be exhausted with you and will wait impatiently for your death, if you don’t want to die among strangers, because you don’t remember anything and everyone around you seems strangers to you in reality, you We must take action from today and take care not only of ourselves, but of our loved ones.

The Bible says, “Seek and you will find.” Perhaps you have found your own way of healing and rejuvenation.

Everything is in our hands, and only we can take care of ourselves. No one will do this for us!

Strictly speaking, in this material we will briefly consider not only chemical and physical properties of liquid water, but also the properties inherent in it in general as such.

You can find out more about the properties of water in the solid state in the article - PROPERTIES OF WATER IN THE SOLID STATE (read →).

Water is a super-important substance for our planet. Without it, life on Earth is impossible; without it, not a single geological process takes place. The great scientist and thinker Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky wrote in his works that there is no such component whose significance could “be compared with it in its influence on the course of the main, most formidable geological processes.” Water is present not only in the body of all living creatures on our planet, but also in all substances on Earth - in minerals, in rocks... The study of the unique properties of water constantly reveals to us more and more new secrets, asks us new riddles and poses new challenges.

Anomalous properties of water

Many physical and chemical properties of water surprise and fall out of general rules and patterns and are anomalous, for example:

• In accordance with the laws established by the principle of similarity, within the framework of sciences such as chemistry and physics, we could expect that:
  • water will boil at minus 70°C and freeze at minus 90°C;
  • the water will not drip from the tip of the tap, but will flow in a thin stream;
  • the ice will sink rather than float on the surface;
  • more than a few grains of sugar would not dissolve in a glass of water.
• The surface of water has a negative electrical potential;
• When heated from 0°C to 4°C (3.98°C to be exact), water contracts;
• The high heat capacity of liquid water is surprising;

As noted above, in this material we will list the main physical and chemical properties of water and make brief comments on some of them.

Physical properties of water

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES are properties that appear outside of chemical reactions.

Water purity

The purity of water depends on the presence of impurities, bacteria, salts of heavy metals in it..., to familiarize yourself with the interpretation of the term PURE WATER according to our website, you need to read the article PURE WATER (read →).

Water color

The color of water depends on the chemical composition and mechanical impurities

As an example, let us give the definition of “Color of the Sea” given by the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.

The color of the sea. The color perceived by the eye when an observer looks at the surface of the sea. The color of the sea depends on the color of sea water, the color of the sky, the number and nature of clouds, the height of the Sun above the horizon, and other reasons.

The concept of the color of the sea should be distinguished from the concept of the color of sea water. Seawater color refers to the color perceived by the eye when viewing seawater vertically above a white background. Only a small part of the light rays incident on it is reflected from the surface of the sea, the rest of them penetrates into the depths, where they are absorbed and scattered by water molecules, particles of suspended substances and tiny gas bubbles. The scattered rays reflected and emerging from the sea create the color spectrum. Water molecules scatter blue and green rays the most. Suspended particles scatter all rays almost equally. Therefore, sea water with a small amount of suspended matter appears blue-green (the color of the open parts of the oceans), and with a significant amount of suspended matter it appears yellowish-green (for example, the Baltic Sea). The theoretical side of the doctrine of central mathematics was developed by V. V. Shuleikin and C. V. Raman.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978

The smell of water

Odor of water – clean water usually has no odor.

Water clarity

The transparency of water depends on the minerals dissolved in it and the content of mechanical impurities, organic substances and colloids:

WATER TRANSPARENCY is the ability of water to transmit light. Usually measured by a Secchi disk. Depends mainly on the concentration of suspended and dissolved organic and inorganic substances in water. It can sharply decrease as a result of anthropogenic pollution and eutrophication of water bodies.

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau I.I. Dedu. 1989

WATER TRANSPARENCY is the ability of water to transmit light rays. It depends on the thickness of the layer of water traversed by the rays, the presence of suspended impurities, dissolved substances, etc. In water, red and yellow rays are absorbed more strongly, and violet rays penetrate deeper. According to the degree of transparency, in order of decreasing it, waters are distinguished:

• transparent;
• slightly opalescent;
• opalescent;
• slightly cloudy;
• cloudy;
• very cloudy.

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology. - M.: Gostoptekhizdat. 1961

Taste of water

The taste of water depends on the composition of the substances dissolved in it.

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology

The taste of water is a property of water that depends on the salts and gases dissolved in it. There are tables of the palatable concentration of salts dissolved in water (in mg/l), for example the following table (according to Staff).

Water temperature

Melting point of water:

MELTING POINT - the temperature at which a substance changes from SOLID to liquid. The melting point of a solid is equal to the freezing point of a liquid, for example, the melting point of ice, O °C, is equal to the freezing point of water.

Boiling point of water : 99.974°C

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

BOILING POINT, the temperature at which a substance passes from one state (phase) to another, that is, from liquid to vapor or gas. The boiling point increases with increasing external pressure and decreases with decreasing pressure. It is usually measured at a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere (760 mm Hg). The boiling point of water at standard pressure is 100 °C.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Triple point of water

Triple point of water: 0.01 °C, 611.73 Pa;

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

TRIPLE POINT, temperature and pressure at which all three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) can exist simultaneously. For water, the triple point is located at a temperature of 273.16 K and a pressure of 610 Pa.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Surface tension of water

Surface tension of water - determines the strength of adhesion of water molecules to each other, for example, how this or that water is absorbed by the human body depends on this parameter.

Hardness of water

Marine dictionary

WATER HARDNESS (Stiffness of Water) - a property of water that is exsanguinated by the content of alkaline earth metal salts dissolved in it, Ch. arr. calcium and magnesium (in the form of bicarbonate salts - bicarbonates), and salts of strong mineral acids - sulfuric and hydrochloric. L.V. is measured in special units, the so-called. degrees of hardness. The degree of hardness is the weight content of calcium oxide (CaO), equal to 0.01 g in 1 liter of water. Hard water is unsuitable for feeding boilers, as it promotes strong scale formation on their walls, which can cause burnout of the boiler tubes. Boilers of high power and especially high pressure must be fed with completely purified water (condensate from steam engines and turbines, purified by filters from oil impurities, as well as distillate prepared in special evaporator apparatus).

Samoilov K.I. Marine dictionary. — M.-L.: State Naval Publishing House of the NKVMF of the USSR, 1941

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

WATER HARDNESS, the inability of water to form foam with soap due to salts dissolved in it, mainly calcium and magnesium.

Scale in boilers and pipes is formed due to the presence of dissolved calcium carbonate in the water, which enters the water upon contact with limestone. In hot or boiling water, calcium carbonate precipitates as hard limescale deposits on surfaces inside boilers. Calcium carbonate also prevents soap from foaming. The ion exchange container (3) is filled with granules coated with sodium-containing materials. with which water comes into contact. Sodium ions, being more active, replace calcium ions. Since sodium salts remain soluble even when boiled, scale does not form.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Water structure

Water mineralization

Water mineralization :

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary

WATER MINERALIZATION - saturation of water with inorganic. (mineral) substances found in it in the form of ions and colloids; the total amount of inorganic salts contained mainly in fresh water, the degree of mineralization is usually expressed in mg/l or g/l (sometimes in g/kg).

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau: Main editorial office of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Dedu. 1989

Water viscosity

Water viscosity characterizes the internal resistance of liquid particles to its movement:

Geological Dictionary

The viscosity of water (liquid) is a property of a liquid that causes the occurrence of friction force during movement. It is a factor that transfers motion from layers of water moving at high speed to layers at lower speed. V. in. depends on the temperature and concentration of the solution. Physically, it is estimated by coefficient. viscosity, which is included in a number of formulas for the movement of water.

Geological Dictionary: in 2 volumes. - M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengoltz et al. 1978

There are two types of water viscosity:

• Dynamic viscosity of water is 0.00101 Pa s (at 20°C).

• Kinematic viscosity of water is 0.01012 cm 2 /s (at 20°C).

Critical point of water

The critical point of water is its state at a certain ratio of pressure and temperature, when its properties are the same in the gaseous and liquid states (gaseous and liquid phases).

Critical point of water: 374°C, 22.064 MPa.

Dielectric constant of water

Dielectric constant, in general, is a coefficient showing how much the force of interaction between two charges in a vacuum is greater than in a certain environment.

In the case of water, this figure is unusually high and for static electric fields it is 81.

Heat capacity of water

Heat capacity of water - water has a surprisingly high heat capacity:

Ecological dictionary

Heat capacity is the property of substances to absorb heat. It is expressed as the amount of heat absorbed by a substance when it is heated by 1°C. The heat capacity of water is about 1 cal/g, or 4.2 J/g. The heat capacity of the soil (at 14.5-15.5°C) ranges (from sandy to peat soils) from 0.5 to 0.6 cal (or 2.1-2.5 J) per unit volume and from 0.2 up to 0.5 cal (or 0.8-2.1 J) per unit mass (g).

Ecological Dictionary. - Alma-Ata: “Science”. B.A. Bykov. 1983

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (symbol c), the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1K. It is measured in J/K.kg (where J is JOUL). Substances with a high specific heat, such as water, require more energy to raise their temperature than substances with a low specific heat.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Thermal conductivity of water

Thermal conductivity of a substance implies its ability to conduct heat from its hotter parts to its colder parts.

Heat transfer in water occurs either at the molecular level, i.e., transferred by water molecules, or due to the movement / displacement of any volumes of water - turbulent thermal conductivity.

The thermal conductivity of water depends on temperature and pressure.

Fluidity of water

The fluidity of substances is understood as their ability to change their shape under the influence of constant stress or constant pressure.

The fluidity of liquids is also determined by the mobility of their particles, which at rest are unable to perceive shear stress.

Water inductance

Inductance determines the magnetic properties of closed electric current circuits. Water, with the exception of some cases, conducts electric current, and therefore has a certain inductance.

Density of water

The density of water is determined by the ratio of its mass to volume at a certain temperature. Read more in our material - WHAT IS WATER DENSITY(read →).

Compressibility of water

The compressibility of water is insignificant and depends on the salinity of the water and pressure. For example, for distilled water it is 0.0000490.

Electrical conductivity of water

The electrical conductivity of water largely depends on the amount of salts dissolved in it.

Radioactivity of water

The radioactivity of water depends on the content of radon in it, the emanation of radium.

Physico-chemical properties of water

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER - parameters that determine the physical and chemical characteristics of natural waters. These include indicators of the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH) and oxidation-reduction potential (Eh).

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology. - M.: Gostoptekhizdat. Compiled by A. A. Makkaveev, editor O. K. Lange. 1961

Acid-base balance of water

Redox potential of water

The oxidation-reduction potential of water (ORP) is the ability of water to enter into biochemical reactions.

Chemical properties of water

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF A SUBSTANCE are properties that appear as a result of chemical reactions.

Below are the chemical properties of water according to the textbook “Fundamentals of Chemistry. Internet textbook” by A. V. Manuilova, V. I. Rodionov.

Interaction of water with metals

When water interacts with most metals, a reaction occurs that releases hydrogen:

• 2Na + 2H2O = H2 + 2NaOH (boisterous);
• 2K + 2H2O = H2 + 2KOH (boil);
• 3Fe + 4H2O = 4H2 + Fe3O4 (only when heated).

Not all, but only sufficiently active metals can participate in redox reactions of this type. Alkali and alkaline earth metals of groups I and II react most easily.

Interaction of water with non-metals

Of the non-metals, for example, carbon and its hydrogen compound (methane) react with water. These substances are much less active than metals, but are still capable of reacting with water at high temperatures:

• C + H2O = H2 + CO (high heat);
• CH4 + 2H2O = 4H2 + CO2 (at high heat).

Interaction of water with electric current

When exposed to electric current, water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This is also a redox reaction, where water is both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent.

Interaction of water with non-metal oxides

Water reacts with many non-metal oxides and some metal oxides. These are not redox reactions, but coupling reactions:

SO2 + H2O = H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Interaction of water with metal oxides

Some metal oxides can also react with water. We have already seen examples of such reactions:

CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)

Not all metal oxides are capable of reacting with water. Some of them are practically insoluble in water and therefore do not react with water. For example: ZnO, TiO2, Cr2O3, from which, for example, water-resistant paints are prepared. Iron oxides are also insoluble in water and do not react with it.

Hydrates and crystalline hydrates

Water forms compounds, hydrates and crystalline hydrates, in which the water molecule is completely preserved.

For example:

• CuSO4 + 5 H2O = CuSO4.5H2O;
• CuSO4 is a white substance (anhydrous copper sulfate);
• CuSO4.5H2O - crystalline hydrate (copper sulfate), blue crystals.

Other examples of hydrate formation:

• H2SO4 + H2O = H2SO4.H2O (sulfuric acid hydrate);
• NaOH + H2O = NaOH.H2O (caustic soda hydrate).

Compounds that bind water into hydrates and crystalline hydrates are used as desiccants. With their help, for example, water vapor is removed from humid atmospheric air.

Biosynthesis

Water participates in bio-synthesis as a result of which oxygen is formed:

6n CO 2 + 5n H 2 O = (C 6 H 10 O 5) n + 6n O 2 (under light)

We see that the properties of water are diverse and cover almost all aspects of life on Earth. As one of the scientists formulated... it is necessary to study water comprehensively, and not in the context of its individual manifestations.

When preparing the material, information was used from the books - Yu. P. Rassadkin “Ordinary and Extraordinary Water”, Yu. Ya. Fialkov “Unusual Properties of Ordinary Solutions”, Textbook “Fundamentals of Chemistry. Internet textbook” by A. V. Manuilova, V. I. Rodionov and others.

DEFINITION

Water– hydrogen oxide is a binary compound of inorganic nature.

Formula – H 2 O. Molar mass – 18 g/mol. It can exist in three states of aggregation - liquid (water), solid (ice) and gaseous (water vapor).

Chemical properties of water

Water is the most common solvent. There is an equilibrium in a water solution, which is why water is called an ampholyte:

H 2 O ↔ H + + OH — ↔ H 3 O + + OH — .

Under the influence of electric current, water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen:

H 2 O = H 2 + O 2.

At room temperature, water dissolves active metals to form alkalis, and hydrogen is also released:

2H 2 O + 2Na = 2NaOH + H 2.

Water is able to interact with fluorine and interhalide compounds, and in the second case the reaction occurs at low temperatures:

2H 2 O + 2F 2 = 4HF + O 2.

3H 2 O +IF 5 = 5HF + HIO 3.

Salts formed by a weak base and a weak acid undergo hydrolysis when dissolved in water:

Al 2 S 3 + 6H 2 O = 2Al(OH) 3 ↓ + 3H 2 S.

Water can dissolve certain substances, metals and non-metals, when heated:

4H 2 O + 3Fe = Fe 3 O 4 + 4H 2;

H 2 O + C ↔ CO + H 2 .

Water, in the presence of sulfuric acid, enters into interaction reactions (hydration) with unsaturated hydrocarbons - alkenes with the formation of saturated monohydric alcohols:

CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2 O → CH 3 -CH 2 -OH.

Physical properties of water

Water is a clear liquid (n.s.). The dipole moment is 1.84 D (due to the strong difference in the electronegativities of oxygen and hydrogen). Water has the highest specific heat capacity among all substances in liquid and solid aggregate states. The specific heat of fusion of water is 333.25 kJ/kg (0 C), vaporization is 2250 kJ/kg. Water can dissolve polar substances. Water has high surface tension and a negative surface electrical potential.

Getting water

Water is obtained by a neutralization reaction, i.e. reactions between acids and alkalis:

H 2 SO 4 + 2KOH = K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O;

HNO 3 + NH 4 OH = NH 4 NO 3 + H 2 O;

2CH 3 COOH + Ba(OH) 2 = (CH 3 COO) 2 Ba + H 2 O.

One of the ways to obtain water is the reduction of metals with hydrogen from their oxides:

CuO + H 2 = Cu + H 2 O.

Examples of problem solving

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

Water is one of the most common substances in nature (the hydrosphere occupies 71% of the Earth's surface). Water plays a vital role in geology and the history of the planet. Without water, living organisms cannot exist. The fact is that the human body is almost 63% - 68% water. Almost all biochemical reactions in every living cell are reactions in aqueous solutions... Most technological processes take place in solutions (mostly aqueous) in the chemical industry, in the production of medicines and food products. And in metallurgy, water is extremely important, and not only for cooling. It is no coincidence that hydrometallurgy - the extraction of metals from ores and concentrates using solutions of various reagents - has become an important industry.

Water, you have no color, no taste, no smell,
you cannot be described, you are enjoyed,
not knowing what you are. It's impossible to say
what is necessary for life: you are life itself.
You fulfill us with joy,
which cannot be explained by our feelings.
With you our strength returns,
to whom we have already said goodbye.
By your grace they begin again in us
the dry springs of our hearts are bubbling.
(A. de Saint-Exupéry. Planet of People)

I wrote an essay on the topic “Water is the most amazing substance in the world.” I chose this topic because it is the most relevant topic, since water is the most important substance on Earth without which no living organism can exist and no biological, chemical reactions, or technological processes can occur.

Water is the most amazing substance on Earth

Water is a familiar and unusual substance. The famous Soviet scientist Academician I.V. Petryanov called his popular science book about water “the most extraordinary substance in the world.” And “Entertaining Physiology,” written by Doctor of Biological Sciences B.F. Sergeev, begins with a chapter about water - “The Substance that Created Our Planet.”
Scientists are absolutely right: there is no substance on Earth that is more important for us than ordinary water, and at the same time there is no other substance whose properties would have as many contradictions and anomalies as its properties.

Almost 3/4 of the surface of our planet is occupied by oceans and seas. Hard water - snow and ice - covers 20% of the land. The climate of the planet depends on water. Geophysicists claim that the Earth would have cooled long ago and turned into a lifeless piece of stone if it were not for water. It has a very high heat capacity. When heated, it absorbs heat; cooling down, he gives it away. Earth's water both absorbs and returns a lot of heat and thereby “evens out” the climate. And what protects the Earth from the cosmic cold are those water molecules that are scattered in the atmosphere - in clouds and in the form of vapor... You cannot do without water - this is the most important substance on Earth.
Structure of a water molecule

The behavior of water is "illogical". It turns out that the transition of water from solid to liquid and gas occurs at temperatures much higher than it should be. An explanation has been found for these anomalies. The water molecule H 2 O is built in the form of a triangle: the angle between the two oxygen-hydrogen bonds is 104 degrees. But since both hydrogen atoms are located on the same side of the oxygen, the electrical charges in it are dispersed. The water molecule is polar, which is the reason for the special interaction between its different molecules. The hydrogen atoms in the H 2 O molecule, having a partial positive charge, interact with the electrons of the oxygen atoms of neighboring molecules. This chemical bond is called a hydrogen bond. It combines H 2 O molecules into unique polymers of a spatial structure; the plane in which the hydrogen bonds are located is perpendicular to the plane of the atoms of the same H 2 O molecule. The interaction between water molecules primarily explains the abnormally high temperatures of its melting and boiling. Additional energy must be supplied to loosen and then destroy hydrogen bonds. And this energy is very significant. This is why, by the way, the heat capacity of water is so high.

What bonds does H 2 O have?

A water molecule contains two polar covalent bonds H-O.

They are formed due to the overlap of two one-electron p clouds of the oxygen atom and one-electron S clouds of two hydrogen atoms.

In a water molecule, the oxygen atom has four electron pairs. Two of them are involved in the formation of covalent bonds, i.e. are binding. The other two electron pairs are non-bonding.

There are four pole charges in a molecule: two are positive and two are negative. Positive charges are concentrated on hydrogen atoms, since oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. The two negative poles come from two non-bonding electron pairs of oxygen.

Such an understanding of the structure of the molecule makes it possible to explain many properties of water, in particular the structure of ice. In the ice crystal lattice, each molecule is surrounded by four others. In a planar image, this can be represented as follows:

The diagram shows that the connection between molecules is carried out through a hydrogen atom:
The positively charged hydrogen atom of one water molecule is attracted to the negatively charged oxygen atom of another water molecule. This bond is called a hydrogen bond (it is designated by dots). The strength of a hydrogen bond is approximately 15-20 times weaker than a covalent bond. Therefore, the hydrogen bond is easily broken, which is observed, for example, during the evaporation of water.

The structure of liquid water resembles that of ice. In liquid water, molecules are also connected to each other through hydrogen bonds, but the structure of water is less “rigid” than that of ice. Due to the thermal movement of molecules in water, some hydrogen bonds are broken and others are formed.

Physical properties of H 2 O

Water, H 2 O, odorless, tasteless, colorless liquid (bluish in thick layers); density 1 g/cm 3 (at 3.98 degrees), t pl = 0 degrees, t boil = 100 degrees.
There are different types of water: liquid, solid and gaseous.
Water is the only substance in nature that, under terrestrial conditions, exists in all three states of aggregation:

liquid - water
hard - ice
gaseous - steam

Soviet scientist V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “Water stands apart in the history of our planet. There is no natural body that could compare with it in its influence on the course of the main, most ambitious geological processes. There is no earthly substance - a rock mineral, a living body, which would not contain it. All earthly matter is permeated and embraced by it."

Chemical properties of H 2 O

Among the chemical properties of water, the ability of its molecules to dissociate (disintegrate) into ions and the ability of water to dissolve substances of different chemical nature are especially important. The role of water as the main and universal solvent is determined primarily by the polarity of its molecules (displacement of the centers of positive and negative charges) and, as a consequence, its extremely high dielectric constant. Opposite electric charges, and in particular ions, are attracted to each other in water 80 times weaker than they would be attracted in air. The forces of mutual attraction between molecules or atoms of a body immersed in water are also weaker than in air. In this case, it is easier for thermal movement to separate the molecules. This is why dissolution occurs, including many difficult-to-soluble substances: a drop wears away a stone...

Dissociation (decay) of water molecules into ions:
H 2 O → H + +OH, or 2H 2 O → H 3 O (hydroxy ion) +OH
under normal conditions it is extremely insignificant; On average, one molecule out of 500,000,000 dissociates. It must be borne in mind that the first of the given equations is purely conditional: a proton H deprived of an electron shell cannot exist in an aqueous environment. It immediately combines with a water molecule, forming the hydroxy ion H 3 O. It is considered even that the associates of water molecules actually decay into much heavier ions, such as, for example,
8H 2 O → HgO 4 +H 7 O 4, and the reaction H 2 O → H + +OH - is only a highly simplified diagram of the real process.

The reactivity of water is relatively low. True, some active metals are capable of displacing hydrogen from it:
2Na+2H 2 O → 2NaOH+H 2,

and in an atmosphere of free fluorine, water can burn:
2F 2 +2H 2 O → 4HF+O 2.

Ordinary ice crystals also consist of similar molecular associates of molecular compounds. The “packing” of atoms in such a crystal is not ionic, and ice does not conduct heat well. The density of liquid water at temperatures close to zero is greater than that of ice. At 0°C, 1 g of ice occupies a volume of 1.0905 cm 3, and 1 g of liquid water occupies a volume of 1.0001 cm 3. And ice floats, which is why water bodies do not freeze through, but are only covered with ice. This reveals another anomaly of water: after melting, it first contracts, and only then, at the turn of 4 degrees, during the further process it begins to expand. At high pressures, ordinary ice can be turned into the so-called ice - 1, ice - 2, ice - 3, etc. - heavier and denser crystalline forms of this substance. The hardest, densest and most refractory ice so far is 7, obtained at a pressure of 3 kiloPa. It melts at 190 degrees.

Water cycle in nature

The human body is penetrated by millions of blood vessels. Large arteries and veins connect the main organs of the body with each other, smaller ones intertwine them on all sides, and the finest capillaries reach almost every individual cell. Whether you are digging a hole, sitting in class or sleeping blissfully, blood continuously flows through them, connecting the brain and stomach, kidneys and liver, eyes and muscles into a single system of the human body. What is blood needed for?

Blood carries oxygen from your lungs and nutrients from your stomach to every cell in your body. Blood collects waste products from all, even the most secluded corners of the body, freeing it from carbon dioxide and other unnecessary, including dangerous, substances. Blood carries special substances throughout the body - hormones, which regulate and coordinate the work of different organs. In other words, blood connects different parts of the body into a single system, into a coherent and efficient organism.

Our planet also has a circulatory system. The blood of the Earth is water, and the blood vessels are rivers, rivulets, streams and lakes. And this is not just a comparison, an artistic metaphor. Water on Earth plays the same role as blood in the human body, and as scientists recently noted, the structure of the river network is very similar to the structure of the human circulatory system. “The charioteer of nature” - this is what the great Leonardo da Vinci called water, it is she who passes from soil to plants, from plants to the atmosphere, flowing down rivers from continents to the oceans and returning back with air currents, connecting various components of nature with each other, transforming them into a single geographical system. Water does not simply pass from one natural component to another. Like blood, it carries with it a huge amount of chemicals, exporting them from the soil to plants, from land to lakes and oceans, from the atmosphere to land. All plants can consume nutrients contained in the soil only with water, where they are in a dissolved state. If it were not for the influx of water from the soil into the plants, all herbs, even those growing in the richest soils, would die “of hunger,” like a merchant who died of starvation on a chest of gold. Water supplies nutrients to the inhabitants of rivers, lakes and seas. Streams, flowing merrily from fields and meadows during the spring melting of snow or after summer rains, collect chemicals stored in the soil along the way and bring them to the inhabitants of reservoirs and the sea, thereby connecting the land and water areas of our planet. The richest “table” is formed in those places where rivers carrying nutrients flow into lakes and seas. Therefore, such areas of the coast - estuaries - are distinguished by a riot of underwater life. And who removes the waste generated as a result of the life activity of various geographical systems? Again, water, and as an accelerator it works much better than the human circulatory system, which only partially performs this function. The purifying role of water is especially important now, when people are poisoning the environment with waste from cities, industrial and agricultural enterprises. The adult human body contains approximately 5-6 kg. blood, most of which circulates continuously between different parts of his body. How much water does the life of our world need?

All water on earth that is not part of rocks is united by the concept of “hydrosphere”. Its weight is so great that it is usually measured not in kilograms or tons, but in cubic kilometers. One cubic kilometer is a cube with each edge measuring 1 km, constantly occupied by water. The weight of 1 km 3 of water is equal to 1 billion tons. The entire earth contains 1.5 billion km 3 of water, which by weight is approximately 1500000000000000000 tons! For each person there is 1.4 km 3 of water, or 250 million tons. Drink, I don’t want to!
But unfortunately, everything is not so simple. The fact is that 94% of this volume consists of the waters of the world’s oceans, which are not suitable for most economic purposes. Only 6% is land water, of which only 1/3 is fresh, i.e. only 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. The bulk of this fresh water is concentrated in glaciers. Significantly less of them are contained under the earth's surface (in shallow underground water horizons, in underground lakes, in soils, as well as in atmospheric vapors. The share of rivers, from which people mainly take water, is very small - 1.2 thousand km 3. The total volume of water simultaneously contained in living organisms is absolutely insignificant. So there is not so much water on our planet that can be consumed by humans and other living organisms. But why does it not end? After all, people and animals They constantly drink water, plants evaporate it into the atmosphere, and rivers carry it into the ocean.

Why doesn't the Earth run out of water?

The human circulatory system is a closed circuit through which blood continuously flows, carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products. This flow never ends because it is a circle or a ring, and, as we know, “a ring has no end.” The water network of our planet is designed according to the same principle. Water on Earth is in a constant cycle, and its loss in one link is immediately replenished by intake from another. The driving force behind the water cycle is solar energy and gravity. Due to the water cycle, all parts of the hydrosphere are closely united and connect other components of nature. In its most general form, the water cycle on our planet looks like this. Under the influence of sunlight, water evaporates from the surface of the ocean and land and enters the atmosphere, and evaporation from the surface of the land is carried out both by rivers and reservoirs, and by soil and plants. Some of the water immediately returns with rain back to the ocean, and some is carried by winds to land, where it falls in the form of rain and snow. Getting into the soil, water is partially absorbed into it, replenishing the reserves of soil moisture and groundwater; soil moisture partially flows along the surface into rivers and reservoirs; soil moisture partially passes into plants, which evaporate it into the atmosphere, and partially flows into rivers, only at a lower speed. Rivers, fed by surface streams and groundwater, carry water to the oceans, replenishing its loss. Water evaporates from its surface, ends up back in the atmosphere, and the cycle closes. The same movement of water between all components of nature and all parts of the earth's surface occurs constantly and uninterruptedly for many millions of years.

It must be said that the water cycle is not completely closed. Part of it, falling into the upper layers of the atmosphere, decomposes under the influence of sunlight and goes into space. But these minor losses are constantly replenished by the supply of water from the deep layers of the earth during volcanic eruptions. Due to this, the volume of the hydrosphere gradually increases. According to some calculations, 4 billion years ago its volume was 20 million km 3, i.e. was seven thousand times smaller than the modern one. In the future, the amount of water on Earth will apparently also increase, given that the volume of water in the Earth's mantle is estimated at 20 billion km 3 - this is 15 times more than the current volume of the hydrosphere. By comparing the volume of water in individual parts of the hydrosphere with the influx of water into them and neighboring parts of the cycle, it is possible to determine the activity of water exchange, i.e. the time during which the volume of water in the World Ocean, atmosphere or soil can be completely renewed. The waters in the polar glaciers are renewed the slowest (once every 8 thousand years). And the fastest thing to renew is river water, which in all rivers on Earth changes completely in 11 days.

The planet's water hunger

“Earth is a planet of amazing blueness”! — American astronauts returning from distant Space after landing on the Moon enthusiastically reported. And could our planet look different if more than 2/3 of its surface is occupied by seas and oceans, glaciers and lakes, rivers, ponds and reservoirs. But then, what does the phenomenon whose name is in the headlines mean? What kind of “hunger” can there be if there is such an abundance of water bodies on Earth? Yes, there is more than enough water on Earth. But we must not forget that life on planet Earth, according to scientists, first appeared in water, and only then came to land. Organisms have maintained their dependence on water during evolution for many millions of years. Water is the main “building material” that makes up their body. This can be easily verified by analyzing the figures in the following tables:

The last number of this table indicates that a person weighs 70 kg. contains 50 kg. water! But there is even more of it in the human embryo: in a three-day embryo - 97%, in a three-month embryo - 91%, in an eight-month embryo - 81%.

The problem of “water hunger” is the need to incontinent a certain amount of water in the body, as there is a constant loss of moisture during various physiological processes. For normal existence in a temperate climate, a person needs to receive about 3.5 liters of water per day from drinking and food; in the desert this norm increases to at least 7.5 liters. A person can exist without food for about forty days, and without water much less - 8 days. According to special medical experiments, with a loss of moisture in the amount of 6-8% of body weight, a person falls into a semi-fainting state, with a loss of 10%, hallucinations begin, with 12% a person can no longer recover without special medical care, and with a loss of 20%, inevitable death. Many animals adapt well to lack of moisture. The most famous and striking example of this is the “ship of the desert,” the camel. It can live for a very long time in a hot desert, without consuming drinking water and losing up to 30% of its original weight without compromising its performance. So, in one of the special tests, a camel worked for 8 days under the scorching summer sun, losing 100 kg. from 450 kg. its starting weight. And when they brought him to the water, he drank 103 liters and regained his weight. It has been established that a camel can obtain up to 40 liters of moisture by converting the fat accumulated in its hump. Desert animals such as jerboas and kangaroo rats do not consume drinking water at all - they only need the moisture they receive from food and the water formed in their bodies during the oxidation of their own fat, just like camels. Plants consume even more water for their growth and development. A head of cabbage “drinks” more than one liter of water per day; on average, one tree drinks more than 200 liters of water. Of course, this is a fairly approximate figure - different tree species in different natural conditions consume very, very different amounts of moisture. Thus, saxaul growing in the desert wastes a minimal amount of moisture, and eucalyptus, which in some places is called a “pump tree,” passes a huge amount of water through itself, and for this reason its plantings are used to drain swamps. This is how the swampy malarial lands of the Colchis Lowland were turned into a prosperous territory.

Already, about 10% of our planet's population lacks clean water. And if you consider that 800 million households in rural areas, where about 25% of all humanity lives, do not have running water, then the problem of “water hunger” becomes truly global. It is especially acute in developing countries, where approximately 90% of the population uses poor water. The lack of clean water is becoming one of the most important factors limiting the progressive development of mankind.

Purchased questions about water conservation

Water is used in all areas of human economic activity. It is almost impossible to name any manufacturing process that does not use water. Due to the rapid development of industry and urban population growth, water consumption is increasing. The issues of protecting water resources and sources from depletion, as well as from pollution by wastewater, are of paramount importance. Everyone knows the damage sewage causes to the inhabitants of water bodies. Even more terrible for humans and all living things on Earth is the appearance of toxic chemicals in river waters, washed off from the fields. So the presence of 2.1 parts of pesticide (endrin) in water per billion parts of water is enough to kill all the fish in it. Untreated wastewater from settlements dumped into rivers poses a huge threat to humanity. This problem is solved by implementing technological processes in which waste water is not discharged into reservoirs, but after purification is returned to the technological process.

Currently, great attention is paid to the protection of the environment and in particular natural reservoirs. Considering the significance of this problem, our country has not adopted a law on the protection and rational use of natural resources. The Constitution states: “Citizens of Russia are obliged to take care of nature and protect its wealth.”

Types of water

Bromine water - saturated solution of Br 2 in water (3.5% by weight Br 2). Bromine water is an oxidizing agent, a brominating agent in analytical chemistry.

Ammonia water - is formed when raw coke oven gas comes into contact with water, which is concentrated due to cooling of the gas or is specially injected into it to wash out NH3. In both cases, so-called weak, or scrubbing, ammonia water is obtained. By distilling this ammonia water with steam and subsequent reflux and condensation, concentrated ammonia water (18 - 20% NH 3 by weight) is obtained, which is used in the production of soda, as a liquid fertilizer, etc.