Lecture:

Truth, objective and subjective

From the previous lesson, you learned that knowledge about the world around you can be obtained by cognitive activity through the senses and thinking. Agree, a person interested in certain objects and phenomena wants to receive reliable information about them. Truth is important to us, that is, truth, which is a universal human value. What is truth, what are its types and how to distinguish truth from lies we will look at in this lesson.

Basic term of the lesson:

True– this is knowledge that corresponds to objective reality.

What does this mean? Objects and phenomena of the surrounding world exist on their own and do not depend on human consciousness, therefore objects of knowledge are objective. When a person (subject) wants to study or research something, he passes the subject of knowledge through consciousness and derives knowledge that corresponds to his own worldview. And, as you know, each person has his own worldview. This means that two people studying the same subject will describe it differently. That's why knowledge about the subject of knowledge is always subjective. That subjective knowledge that corresponds to the objective subject of knowledge and is true.

Based on the above, one can distinguish objective and subjective truth. ABOUTobjective truth is called knowledge about objects and phenomena, describing them as they really are, without exaggeration or understatement. For example, MacCoffee is coffee, gold is metal. Subjective truth, on the contrary, refers to knowledge about objects and phenomena that depends on the opinions and assessments of the subject of knowledge. The statement "MacCoffee is the most best coffee in the world" is subjective, because that's what I think, and some people don't like MacCoffee. Common examples of subjective truth are signs that cannot be proven.

Truth is absolute and relative

Truth is also divided into absolute and relative.

Every scientist strives to get as close as possible to the absolute truth. However, often due to the insufficiency of methods and forms of knowledge, a scientist is able to establish only relative truth. Which, with the development of science, is confirmed and becomes absolute, or refuted and turns into error. For example, the knowledge of the Middle Ages that the Earth was flat with the development of science was refuted and began to be considered a delusion.

There are very few absolute truths, much more relative ones. Why? Because the world is changing. For example, a biologist studies the number of animals listed in the Red Book. While he is conducting this research, the numbers are changing. Therefore, it will be very difficult to calculate the exact number.

!!! It is a mistake to say that absolute and objective truth are one and the same. This is wrong. Both absolute and relative truth can be objective, provided that the subject of knowledge has not adjusted the research results to his personal beliefs.

Criteria of truth

How to distinguish truth from error? For this purpose, there are special means of testing knowledge, which are called criteria of truth. Let's look at them:

• Most main criterion- practice – This is an active subject activity aimed at understanding and transforming the world around us.. Forms of practice are material production (for example, labor), social action(for example, reforms, revolutions), scientific experiment. Only practically useful knowledge is considered true. For example, based on certain knowledge, the government carries out economic reforms. If they give the expected results, then the knowledge is true. Based on knowledge, the doctor treats the patient; if he is healed, then the knowledge is true. Practice as the main criterion of truth is part of knowledge and performs the following functions: 1) practice is the source of knowledge, because it is it that pushes people to study certain phenomena and processes; 2) practice is the basis of knowledge, because it permeates cognitive activity from beginning to end; 3) practice is the goal of knowledge, because knowledge of the world is necessary for the subsequent application of knowledge in reality; 4) practice, as already mentioned, is a criterion of truth necessary to distinguish truth from error and lies.

• Compliance with the laws of logic. Knowledge obtained through evidence should not be confusing or internally contradictory. It must also be logically consistent with well-tested and reliable theories. For example, if someone puts forward a theory of heredity that is fundamentally incompatible with modern genetics, one can assume that it is not true.

• Compliance with fundamental scientific laws . New knowledge must comply with Eternal laws. Many of which you study in the lessons of mathematics, physics, chemistry, social studies, etc. These are such as the Law of Universal Gravitation, the Law of Conservation of Energy, D.I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law, the Law of Supply and Demand and others. For example, the knowledge that the Earth is kept in orbit around the Sun corresponds to I. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. Another example, if the price of linen fabric increases, then the demand for this fabric decreases, which corresponds to the Law of Supply and Demand.

• Compliance with previously open laws . Example: Newton's first law (law of inertia) corresponds to the law previously discovered by G. Galileo, according to which a body remains at rest or moves uniformly and rectilinearly as long as it is influenced by forces that force the body to change its state. But Newton, unlike Galileo, examined the movement more deeply, from all points.

For the greatest reliability of testing knowledge for truth, it is best to use several criteria. Statements that do not meet the criteria of truth are misconceptions or lies. How are they different from each other? Misconception is knowledge that actually does not correspond to reality, but the subject of knowledge does not know about it until a certain moment and accepts it as truth. A lie is a conscious and intentional distortion of knowledge when the subject of knowledge wants to deceive someone.

Exercise: Write in the comments your examples of truth: objective and subjective, absolute and relative. How more examples you bring, the more help you will provide to graduates! After all, it is the lack specific examples makes it difficult to correctly and complete solution tasks of the second part of KIM.

In philosophy, there are several basic concepts, among which it is worth highlighting, first of all, the definition of the absolute itself, as well as the relative. Turning to dictionaries and reference books, we can identify the most capacious definition, which is the following concept: truth is a proven statement accepted as truth; correspondence to reality. What are examples of relative truth?

What is truth

This is primarily a process that is characterized by the perception or awareness of an object or phenomenon to its fullest extent. Some people are inclined to argue that it does not exist in principle - there is only the surrounding reality, objects, views, judgments or phenomena. Nevertheless, it is unified, but in its environment some key aspects can be distinguished:

• Relative.
• Objective.
• Absolute.

Of course, the development of any science presupposes the achievement of an absolute ideal, truth, but this is unlikely, since each new discovery provokes even more questions and disputes. So, for example, a statement like “gold is a metal” is true only if gold really is a metal.

What is absolute truth

To begin with, it is worth defining the concept of objective truth, which is expressed as follows - understanding and perception of knowledge, which does not depend on any specific person, groups of people, civilizations and societies. What is the main difference between absolute truth and relative or objective truth?

Absolute is:

• Exhaustive, fully verified knowledge about a person, subject, object or phenomenon that cannot be refuted in any way.
• Adequate and conscious reproduction by the subject of a certain object, the representation of the subject as he exists in reality, regardless of the person’s opinion and his consciousness.
• The definition of the infinity of our knowledge, a kind of limit to which all humanity strives.

Many argue that absolute truth does not exist as such. Supporters of this view are inclined to believe that everything is relative; as such, actual reality simply cannot exist. Nevertheless, some examples of absolute truth can be given: scientific laws or the facts of human birth.

What is relative truth

Examples of relative truth eloquently characterize the very definition of the concept. So, in ancient times, people believed that the atom was indivisible, in the 20th century scientists were inclined to believe that the atom consists of electrons, and now they have studied and know for sure that the atom consists of a huge number of tiny particles and their number is constantly increasing. Everyone creates an eloquent idea of ​​the relativity of the real.

Based on this, we can draw conclusions about what relative truth actually is:

• This is knowledge (definition) that fully corresponds to a certain level of human development, but is distinguished by not entirely verified facts or evidence.
• Designation of the borderline or final moments of human knowledge of the world, the approximation of knowledge about the surrounding reality.
• A statement or knowledge that depends on certain conditions (time, historical events, place and other circumstances).

Examples of relative truth

Does absolute truth have a right to exist? To answer this question, it is worth considering a very simple example. So, the expression “planet Earth has the shape of a geoid” can easily be classified as a statement of absolute truth. After all, our planet actually has this shape. The question is: is this expression knowledge? Can this statement give an ignorant person an idea of ​​the shape of the planet? Most likely not. It is much more effective to imagine the Earth in the shape of a ball or ellipsoid. Thus, examples of relative truth make it possible to identify the main criteria and characteristics of the most important components of philosophical concepts.

Criteria

How to distinguish absolute or relative truth from error or fiction.

Respond to the laws of logic? What is the determining factor? For these purposes, there are special concepts that allow us to determine the plausibility of a particular statement. So, the criterion of truth is that which allows us to certify the truth, distinguish it from error, and identify where the truth is and where it is fiction. The criteria are internal and external. What requirements must they meet:

• Express yourself in a simple and concise manner.
• Comply with fundamental laws.
• Be applicable in practice.
• Comply with scientific laws.

Is first and foremost practice - human activity aimed at transforming the surrounding reality.

Modern concept and its key aspects

Absolute, relative, objective truth are concepts that have clear differences from each other. IN modern definition Scientists consider the following aspects of truth: spiritual and subjective reality, the result of knowledge, as well as truth as a cognitive process.

The concreteness of truth deserves special attention - it cannot be abstract. Truth always relates to some time and place. the pursuit of the ideal and the search for truth will always excite philosophers and scientists. Humanity must strive for knowledge and improvement.

Absolute and relative truth are important categories in the conceptual apparatus of dialectical-materialist teaching.

They serve as a reflection of the dialectical nature of cognition, interpret the achievability

The world around a person, which opens in knowledge and is subject to transformation, is distinguished by the properties of inexhaustibility and infinity.

The peculiarity of its structure is its extreme complexity.

His interactions, relationships and connections are limitless.

When trying to describe and understand these properties and features, problems arise that have been around for many millennia.

They are connected with the fact that not a single researcher has been able to express all the richness of the world in any description since the beginning of time.

At the same time, in many vivid and deep testimonies one can find magnificent descriptions of the partially known side of the world.

Dialectics recognizes that truth is, beyond any doubt, objective. It is in this quality that it (the truth) is known.

However, on the path of knowledge a very specific question arises: “What is the relationship between the two things that are subject to knowledge: absolute and relative?”

The answer should give an idea of ​​how exactly the truth is learned: instantly and holistically, immediately and completely, or, on the contrary, located in time, in parts, gradually and progressively?

By providing this answer, philosophy reminds us that the human mind is different situations penetrates into the understanding of reality to different depths. Knowledge corresponds to reality with varying degrees of accuracy.

Some reflect reality in its entirety. Others do this only partly.

Every single person, as well as every single generation, is limited in knowledge. The limiting factors are historical conditions, a certain level of development of technology and technology in experiments, science and production at various stages of their formation.

For these reasons, human knowledge on any arbitrarily taken segment historical development appears in the form of relative truth.

Relative truth is knowledge that does not fully correspond to reality.

Such a truth is only a relatively true reflection of an object that is independent of humanity.

Reflects reality extremely accurately. It is not just objective, but completely objective.

Relative truth, in principle, cannot claim to reflect the world in its entirety.

Is it possible to demand from absolute truth such cognition that relative truth is incapable of?

To answer this question correctly, one must remember that many provisions of materialist dialectics contain contradictions.

On the one hand, absolute truth could be known as a holistic and complete phenomenon in all its manifestations and in full versatility. After all, things are completely knowable, and the capacity of human knowledge is limitless.

But on the other hand, the very presence of relative truth complicates the possibility of knowing absolute truth. After all, relative truth is ahead of absolute truth whenever knowledge is placed in certain, specific conditions.

However, in this case, can the knowledge of absolute truth even take place?

Simultaneously and comprehensively, completely and in all its versatility - no.

In the cognitive process, which is endless - undoubtedly, yes.

The development of more and more new aspects, links, and truth occurs as one approaches it with scientific achievements.

The relativity of truth is the driving force in history.

In the knowledge of relative truths, people come to know the absolute truth. This is precisely the essence of progress.

A person gets to know the world, society and himself with one goal - to know the truth. What is truth, how to determine that this or that knowledge is true, what are the criteria of truth? This is what this article is about.

What is truth

There are several definitions of truth. Here are some of them.

• Truth is knowledge that corresponds to the subject of knowledge.
• Truth is a truthful, objective reflection of reality in human consciousness.

Absolute truth - This is a person’s complete, exhaustive knowledge of something. This knowledge will not be refuted or supplemented with the development of science.

Examples: a person is mortal, two and two are four.

Relative truth - this is knowledge that will be replenished with the development of science, since it is still incomplete and does not fully reveal the essence of phenomena, objects, etc. This happens due to the fact that at this stage development of mankind, science cannot yet reach the ultimate essence of the subject being studied.

Example: first people discovered that substances consist of molecules, then of atoms, then of electrons, etc. As we see, at every stage of the development of science, the idea of ​​an atom was true, but incomplete, that is, relative.

Difference between absolute and relative truth is how fully a particular phenomenon or object has been studied.

Remember: absolute truth was always first relative. Relative truth can become absolute with the development of science.

Are there two truths?

No, there are no two truths . There may be several points of view on the subject being studied, but the truth is always the same.

What is the opposite of truth?

The opposite of truth is error.

Misconception - this is knowledge that does not correspond to the subject of knowledge, but is accepted as truth. A scientist believes that his knowledge about a subject is true, although he is mistaken.

Remember: lie- Not is the opposite of truth.

Lie is a category of morality. It is characterized by the fact that the truth is hidden for some purpose, although it is known. Z delusion same - this is not a lie, A sincere faith that knowledge is true (for example, communism is a delusion, such a society cannot exist in the life of mankind, but entire generations of Soviet people sincerely believed in it).

Objective and subjective truth

Objective truth - this is the content of human knowledge that exists in reality and does not depend on a person, on his level of knowledge. This is the whole world that exists around.

For example, much in the world, in the Universe, exists in reality, although humanity has not yet known it, perhaps it will never know it, but it all exists, an objective truth.

Subjective truth - this is the knowledge acquired by humanity as a result of its cognitive activity, this is everything in reality that has passed through the consciousness of man and is understood by him.

Remember:Objective truth is not always subjective, and subjective truth is always objective.

Criteria of truth

Criteria– this is a word of foreign origin, translated from Greek kriterion - a measure for evaluation. Thus, the criteria of truth are the grounds that will allow one to be convinced of the truth, accuracy of knowledge, in accordance with its subject of knowledge.

Criteria of truth

• Sensual experience - the simplest and most reliable criterion of truth. How to determine if an apple is tasty - try it; how to understand that music is beautiful - listen to it; How to make sure that the color of the leaves is green - look at them.
• Theoretical information about the subject of knowledge, that is, theory . Many objects are not amenable to sensory perception. We will never be able to see, for example, the Big Bang, as a result of which the Universe was formed. In this case, theoretical study and logical conclusions will help to recognize the truth.

Theoretical criteria of truth:

1. Compliance with logical laws
2. Correspondence of truth to those laws that were discovered by people earlier
3. Simplicity of formulation, economy of expression

• Practice. This criterion is also very effective, since the truth of knowledge is proven by practical means .(There will be a separate article about practice, follow the publications)

Thus, the main objective any knowledge - to establish the truth. This is exactly what scientists do, this is what each of us is trying to achieve in life: know the truth , no matter what she touches.

In many ways, the problem of the reliability of our knowledge about the world is determined by the answer to the fundamental question of the theory of knowledge: "What is truth?"

1. In the history of philosophy, there have been different views on the possibilities of obtaining reliable knowledge:

• Empiricism - all knowledge about the world is justified only by experience (F. Bacon)
• Sensualism - only with the help of sensations can one understand the world (D. Hume)
• Rationalism - reliable knowledge can only be gleaned from reason itself (R. Descartes)
• Agnosticism - “the thing in itself” is unknowable (I. Kant)
• Skepticism - it is impossible to obtain reliable knowledge about the world (M. Montaigne)

True there is a process, and not some one-time act of comprehending an object in full at once.

Truth is one, but it distinguishes objective, absolute and relative aspects, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths.

Objective truth- this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity.

Absolute truth— this is exhaustive, reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

Relative truth- this is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; This is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

The difference between absolute and relative truths (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always specific, it is always associated with a specific place, time and circumstances.

Not everything in our life can be assessed from the point of view of truth or error (lie). Thus, we can talk about different assessments of historical events, alternative interpretations of works of art, etc.

2. True- this is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it. Other definitions:

1. correspondence of knowledge to reality;
2. what is confirmed by experience;
3. some kind of agreement, convention;
4. property of self-consistency of knowledge;
5. usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.

Aspects of truth:

3. Criteria of truth- something that certifies the truth and allows us to distinguish it from error.

1. compliance with the laws of logic;

2. compliance with previously discovered laws of science;

3. compliance with fundamental laws;

4. simplicity, cost-effectiveness of the formula;

Absolute and relative truths

paradoxical idea;

6. practice.

4. Practice- a holistic organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.

Forms practices:

1. material production (labor, transformation of nature);
2. social action (revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.);
3. scientific experiment.

Functions practices:

1. source of knowledge (practical needs brought into existence the sciences that exist today);
2. the basis of knowledge (a person does not just observe or contemplate the world, but in the process of its life transforms it);
3. the purpose of cognition (a person learns the world around him for this purpose, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities);
4. criterion of truth (until some position expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple conclusion is tested experimentally and put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption)).

Meanwhile, practice is simultaneously definite and indefinite, absolute and relative. Absolute in the sense that only developing practice can finally prove any theoretical or other provisions. At the same time, this criterion is relative, since practice itself develops, improves and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition. Therefore, the idea of ​​complementarity is put forward in philosophy: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.

Comprehensive knowledge

Page 1

Absolutely complete, accurate, comprehensive, exhaustive knowledge about any phenomenon is called absolute truth.

It is often asked whether absolute truth can be achieved and formulated. Agnostics answer this question in the negative.  

The lack of comprehensive knowledge about control processes to be automated is not always an obstacle to determining the list of main tasks and requirements for automated control systems.  

If the program has comprehensive knowledge, it is able to formulate the question (or rather, the statement that stands behind it) as a logical consequence of the current state of the problem, the strategic knowledge contained in the metarules, knowledge about the subject area and one of the current goals.  

A modern scientist must have comprehensive knowledge in the often very narrow field of science he is developing, and, on the other hand, the successful development of the chosen direction is unthinkable without large amount knowledge in a variety of related sciences.

Difference between ABSOLUTE TRUTH and RELATIVE TRUTH

These experiments do not provide comprehensive knowledge for practice, therefore it is desirable to further conduct similar experimental work in relation to a significantly larger number of types of existing regulators and fuel supply equipment.  

None of them alone provides comprehensive knowledge of any subject.

But everything that, at least partially or through instruments, affects our senses can be studied and understood.  

Somewhat later it was shown that the Schrödinger equation provides comprehensive knowledge of the behavior of the electron. And those data that, in principle, cannot be calculated, also, in principle, cannot be measured experimentally. Let's say that as soon as you try to look at an electron, you push it off its trajectory. But what eludes measurement and calculation simply does not exist in the world.  

When applied to sufficiently developed scientific theoretical knowledge, absolute truth is complete, exhaustive knowledge about an object (a complex material system or the world as a whole); relative truth is incomplete knowledge about the same subject.  

At the same time, it is impossible, and there is no need, to demand from the manager exhaustive knowledge of all scientific disciplines, the services of which he has to resort to in managerial activities.  

Therefore, scientific truths are relative in the sense that they do not provide complete, exhaustive knowledge about the area of ​​subjects being studied and contain elements that, in the process of development of knowledge, will change, be clarified, deepen, and be replaced by new ones.  

Heating and ventilation technology is developing so quickly that in our time it is no longer possible to demand from specialist builders and architects comprehensive knowledge of such a large field of technology in all its varieties. However, the mutual connection between heat supply and ventilation technology, on the one hand, and general construction technology, on the other, not only does not disappear, but, on the contrary, becomes even closer, even more necessary for the correct solution of a complex of issues of factory, urban and collective farm construction .  

The main task of science is to study a phenomenon while changing the conditions in which it occurs. Comprehensive knowledge consists precisely in having a clear understanding of a particular fact that occurs under any conceivable conditions. It is very important to know what changes outside world are indifferent to the fact of interest to us, and if there is an influence, then study it quantitatively. It is necessary to find the conditions under which the phenomenon shouts about itself, and the circumstances under which the phenomenon does not exist.  

Each of them, they reason, turns out over time to be not entirely accurate and complete, as in the example with solar system. Consequently, complete, exhaustive knowledge is unattainable. And the more complex this or that phenomenon, the more difficult it is to achieve absolute truth, that is, complete, comprehensive knowledge about it. And yet absolute truth exists; and it must be understood as the limit, the goal towards which human knowledge strives.  

In the future, it is necessary to establish why alcohols and other functional derivatives cannot be obtained from paraffin hydrocarbons, especially higher ones, using intermediate chlorination, a very attractive method. The explanation of this fact, which presupposes a comprehensive knowledge of the patterns of substitution processes for paraffin hydrocarbons, is associated with the general conclusion that not only chlorination, but also all other reactions of paraffin substitution proceed according to certain identical patterns.  

Using models, any objects can be studied. But the fundamental incompleteness and fragmentation of models does not allow us to obtain comprehensive knowledge about the original with their help. Only in combination with other methods of cognition, in combination with direct research of the original, can the modeling method be fruitful and have significant heuristic value.  

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Relativity and absoluteness of truth

In my opinion, each person is still purely subjective in his judgment about truth, and therefore it is necessary to distinguish the concept of general, in other words, absolute truth from the concept of truth of each specific individual. And in classical theory there is virtually no such distinction.

So what is relative truth? Perhaps it can be characterized as knowledge that approximately and incompletely reproduces the objective world. Approximateness and incompleteness are the specific properties of relative truth. If the world is a system of interconnected elements, then we can conclude that any knowledge about the world that abstracts from some of its aspects will be deliberately inaccurate. Why? It seems to me that because a person cannot understand the world without fixing his attention on some aspects of it and without being distracted from others, proximity is inherent in the cognitive process itself.

On the other hand, a search is being made for absolute truth within the framework of knowledge of specific, or even isolated facts. Examples of eternal truths usually include sentences that are statements of fact, for example: “Napoleon died on May 5, 1821.” Or the speed of light in vacuum is 300,000 km/s.

6 Truth and its criteria. The relativity of truth.

However, attempts to apply the concept of absolute truth to more essential provisions of science, for example, to universal laws, are unsuccessful.

Thus, a peculiar dilemma arises: if absolute truth is considered as absolutely complete and accurate knowledge, then it lies outside the limits of the real scientific knowledge; if it is considered as a set of eternal truths, then the concept of absolute truth is not applicable to the most fundamental types scientific knowledge. This dilemma is the result of a one-sided approach to the problem, which is expressed in the fact that absolute truth is identified with a type of knowledge isolated from relative truth. The meaning of the concept “absolute truth” is revealed only in the process of development of scientific knowledge. It consists in the fact that during the transition of scientific knowledge from stage to stage, for example from one theory to another, the old knowledge is not completely discarded, but in one form or another is included in the system of new knowledge. It is this inclusion, continuity, which characterizes truth as a process, that constitutes, perhaps, the content of the concept of absolute truth.

Thus, many unsolved problems have arisen, each of which is in one way or another connected with the need to determine the degree of correspondence between the ideas of a person and real world. From this follows the need to search for the most stringent criterion of truth, that is, a sign by which the truth of this or that knowledge could be determined.

In addition, only after establishing the criterion of truth, many categories with which a person has to interact in one way or another acquire meaning.

Processuality of cognition lies in the fact that cognitive activity is a progression from ignorance to knowledge, from error to truth, from incomplete, imperfect, incomplete knowledge to more complete, perfect knowledge. The goal of knowledge is the achievement of truth.

What is truth? How are truth and error related? How is truth obtained and what are its criteria?

J. Locke wrote about the meaning of achieving truth: “The mind’s search for truth is a kind of falconry or hound hunting, in which the pursuit of the game itself is a significant part of the pleasure. Every step that the mind takes in its movement towards knowledge is some discovery, which is not only new, but also the best, for a while, at least."

Aristotle gave the classical definition truth – this is the correspondence between thought and object, knowledge and reality. Truth is knowledge that corresponds to reality. It should be noted that in nature itself there are no truths or errors. They are characteristics of human cognition .

Types of Truth:

1.Absolute truth -

This is knowledge, the content of which is not refuted by the subsequent development of science, but is only enriched and specified (for example, the teaching of Democritus about atoms;

This is knowledge, the content of which remains invariant (Pushkin was born in 1799);

This absolutely complete and exhaustive knowledge about the subject . In this understanding, absolute truth is not achievable, because all connections of the subject cannot be explored.

2.Objective truth– this is knowledge about an object, the content of which is the properties and connections of an objectively (independently of a person) existing object. Such knowledge does not bear the imprint of the researcher’s personality.

Objective truth - this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on a person, it is an adequate reflection by the subject of the surrounding world.

3. Relative truth- this is incomplete, limited, correct only under certain conditions, knowledge that humanity possesses at this stage of its development. Relative truth contains elements of misconceptions associated with specific historical conditions of knowledge.

4. Concrete truth– this is knowledge, the content of which is true only under certain conditions. For example, “water boils at 100 degrees” is true only under normal atmospheric pressure.

The process of cognition can be represented as a movement towards absolute truth as a goal through the accumulation of the content of objective truth through the clarification and improvement of relative and specific truths.

The opposite of truth, but under certain conditions what passes into it and arises from it, is error.

Misconception - an unintentional discrepancy between our understanding of an object (expressed in corresponding judgments or concepts) and this object itself.

Sources of error can be:

— imperfection of an individual’s cognitive abilities;

— prejudices, preferences, subjective moods of the individual;

- poor knowledge of the subject of knowledge, rash generalizations and conclusions.

Misconceptions must be distinguished from:

— errors (the result of an incorrect theoretical or practical action, as well as the interpretation of a given phenomenon);

— lies (conscious, deliberate distortion of reality, deliberate dissemination of obviously incorrect ideas).

The idea that science operates only with truths does not correspond to reality. Misconception is an organic part of the truth and stimulates the process of cognition as a whole. On the one hand, misconceptions lead away from the truth, so a scientist, as a rule, does not consciously put forward obviously incorrect assumptions. But on the other hand, misconceptions often contribute to the creation problem situations, stimulating the development of science.

The experience of the history of science allows us to draw an important conclusion: all scientists should have equal rights in the search for truth; not a single scientist, not a single one scientific school has no right to claim a monopoly in obtaining true knowledge.

The separation of truth from error is impossible without resolving the question of what is criterion of truth .

From the history of attempts to identify criteria for the truth of knowledge:

· Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) - the criterion of truth is thinking itself when it clearly and distinctly thinks of an object; the original truths are self-evident and comprehended through intellectual intuition.

· Russian philosopher V.S. Solovyov - “the measure of truth is transferred from the external world to the cognizing subject himself; the basis of truth is not the nature of things and phenomena, but the human mind” in the case of conscientious thinking.

· E. Cassirer - the criterion of truth is the internal consistency of thinking itself.

· Conventionalism (A. Poincaré, K. Aidukevich, R. Carnap) – scientists accept scientific theories(conclude an agreement, convention) for reasons of convenience, simplicity, etc. The criterion of truth is the formal-logical consistency of scientific judgments with these agreements.

· Neopositivists (20th century) - the truth of scientific statements is established as a result of their empirical verification, this is the so-called. verification principle. (Verifiability (verification) from the Latin verus - true, and facio - I do). However, we note that often experimental activity cannot give a final answer about the truth of knowledge. This happens when an experiment examines the process “in pure form", i.e. in complete isolation from other influencing factors. Experimental testing of social and humanitarian knowledge is significantly limited.

· Pragmatism (W. James) - the truth of knowledge is manifested in its ability to be useful for achieving a particular goal; truth is benefit. (The thesis “everything useful is true” is controversial, since lies can also bring benefits).

Most common criterion of truth knowledge is practice , understood as the socio-historical activity of people. If the use of knowledge in practical activities people gives the expected results, which means our knowledge correctly reflects reality. Practice as a criterion of truth is considered not as a single experience, not as a one-time act of verification, but social practice in its historical development.

However, this criterion is not universal; for example, it does not work in those branches of knowledge that are far from reality (mathematics, non-classical physics). Then other criteria of truth are proposed:

· Formal-logical criterion. It is applicable to axiomatic-deductive theories and requires compliance with the requirements of internal consistency (this is the main requirement), completeness and interdependence of axioms.

When it is not possible to rely on practice, the logical sequence of thought is revealed, its strict adherence to the laws and rules of formal logic. Identifying logical contradictions in reasoning or in the structure of a concept becomes an indicator of error or misconception.

· The principle of simplicity , sometimes called “Occam’s razor” - do not multiply the number of entities unnecessarily. The main requirement of this principle is that to explain the objects under study, it is necessary to introduce a minimum number of initial postulates (accepted without proof of the provisions).

· Axiological criterion , i.e.

Absolute and relative truth

compliance of knowledge with global ideological, socio-political, moral principles. Particularly applicable in the social sciences.

But the most important criterion of truth is still practice, experience. Practice underlies logical, axiological and all other criteria of truth. Whatever methods of establishing the truth of knowledge exist in science, all of them ultimately (through a number of intermediary links) turn out to be connected with practice.

6. Characteristics of the cognitive abilities of various social groups.

Formation of full-fledged cognitive abilities in young children and school age has now been fairly well studied. Studying the same intellectual level adults face serious difficulties. Here, of course, one cannot deny the presence of certain age characteristics, but identifying such age groups is quite difficult. Researchers have now found that certain age groups have general features and relatively stable signs of their intellectual activity. These characteristics are influenced not only by biological age, but also by other factors: family, place of residence, education, ethnic characteristics and much more. Therefore, people of the same age may belong to different intellectual groups depending on their sociocultural environment.

When measuring mature intelligence using the so-called “D. Wechsler test battery” (tests for awareness, logic, memory, symbol manipulation, comprehension of communication, etc.), the best results were given by the age group from 15 to 25 years, and according to other data - from 25 to 29 years old.

Achieving high accuracy in measuring intelligence is quite difficult. Summarizing the data of various measurements, we can say that the growth of intellectual abilities occurs until approximately 20-25 years. Then comes a slight intellectual decline, which becomes more noticeable after 40-45 years and reaches its maximum after 60-65 years (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Relationship between intelligence and age

However, such testing does not provide an objective picture, because You cannot study the young, mature and old minds with the same tests.

U young man the mind serves primarily to assimilate the largest number information, mastering new ways of activity. Mind more mature man is aimed not so much at increasing knowledge, but at solving complex tasks based on existing knowledge, experience and your own style of thinking and acting. These qualities of the mind are often called wisdom. Of course, over the years, certain functions of the intellect inevitably weaken and are even lost. In elderly and especially senile people, the objectivity of assessments gradually decreases, the inertia of judgments increases, they often stray into extreme, black-and-white tones. controversial issues life practice.

Research shows that the natural decline in intellectual activity is restrained by personal talent, education, and social status. People with higher educational levels and those in leadership positions tend to retire later than their peers. In addition, they are more likely to remain intellectually active after retirement by working in advisory or consulting roles.

Among scientists and other specialists in mental and creative work, it is quite natural that there are many intellectual centenarians. For older scientists and engineers, their vocabulary and general erudition hardly change with age; for middle managers, their vocabulary remains unchanged. high level non-verbal communication functions; for accountants - the speed of arithmetic operations.

In addition to age-related characteristics of intelligence, we can also talk about gender and ethnicity.

The question of who is smarter - men or women - is as old as the world. Experimental and test studies carried out over the past two decades have confirmed the fundamental equality of intelligence in people of different sexes. When performing tasks on various mental functions (the ability to generate ideas, originality, originality), no special differences were found between male and female intellects. Many famous psychologists came to similar conclusions independently of each other. However, some superiority of women was found in verbal memory resources and vocabulary of live speech. Men are superior to women in visuospatial orientation.

Thus, although there are intellectual differences between the sexes, they are incomparably small in relation to individual differences within each gender.

The fundamental equality of intellects does not at all mean their sameness, complete identity of cognitive processes in men and women. IQ tests consistently reveal some differences between boys and girls, boys and girls, men and women. Women, on average, are superior to men in verbal abilities, but inferior to them in mathematical abilities and the ability to navigate in space. Girls usually learn to speak, read and write earlier than boys.

The noted differences should not be absolute. Many men can speak better than women, and some women demonstrate better mathematical abilities than the vast majority of men.

An interesting fact is that according to most methods, men receive the highest and lowest possible scores. For women, the spread of individual assessments of mental giftedness is much narrower. In other words, among men there are much more geniuses in science, art and other fields, but there are also much more weak-minded men than women.

Another interest Ask, which arises before the researcher of intelligence - ethnic characteristics. As a rule, ethnic characteristics of intellectual activity and intellectual development are formed against the background of the psychological makeup of the nation.

Hans Eysenck, based on research conducted in the United States, notes that Jews, Japanese and Chinese are superior to representatives of all other nations in all indicators of IQ (intelligence quotient) tests. This is also evidenced by the presentation Nobel Prize. American Scientists, which lists America's leading scientists, shows that in this field Jews outnumber non-Jews by about 300%. The Chinese are equally successful in physics and biology. One of the few attempts to typologize national minds known today belongs to a French scientific theorist of the early 20th century. Pierre Duhem. Duhem distinguished between broad minds, but not deep enough, and subtle, insightful minds, although relatively narrow in their scope.

People of broad intelligence, in his opinion, are found among all nations, but there is a nation for which such intelligence is especially characteristic. These are the British. In science and, especially in practice, this “British” type of mind easily operates with complex groupings individual items, but it is much more difficult to assimilate purely abstract concepts, formulate general signs. In the history of philosophy, an example of this type of mind, from Duhem’s point of view, is F. Bacon.

The French type, Duhem believes, has a particularly subtle mind, loves abstractions and generalizations. It's too narrow though. An example of the French type of mind is R. Descartes. Duhem cited supporting examples not only from the history of philosophy, but also from other sciences.

Whenever an attempt is made to identify a particular national pattern of thought, one should remember the relativity of such differentiation. The national mind is not a stable pattern, like skin color or eye shape; it reflects many features of the sociocultural existence of a people.

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True traditionally understood as correspondence of thoughts and statements to reality. This concept of truth is called classical and goes back to the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers and. Here are their statements on this matter:

Plato: He who speaks of things in accordance with what they are speaks the truth, but he who speaks of them differently lies. Aristotle: To say of a being that it does not exist, or of a non-existent that it is, is to speak falsely; and to say that what exists and what does not exist is not means to say what is true.

Polish-American logician and mathematician Alfred Tarski (1902-1984) expressed the classical formula of truth this way: The statement “P is C” is true if P is C. For example, the statement “Gold is a metal” is true if gold really is a metal. Thus, truth and falsity are characteristics of our thoughts and statements about reality and are impossible outside of human cognitive activity.

Relative and absolute truths

Relative truth- this is knowledge that approximately and limitedly reproduces reality.

Absolute truth- this is complete, exhaustive knowledge of reality that cannot be refuted.

Development is characterized by the desire for absolute truth as an ideal, but the final achievement of this ideal is impossible. Reality cannot be completely exhausted, and with each new discovery new questions arise. In addition, the unattainability of absolute truth is due to the imperfection of the means of knowledge, accessible to man. At the same time, each discovery is simultaneously a step towards absolute truth: in any relative truth there is some part of the absolute truth.

In a statement ancient Greek philosopher Democritus (5th century BC) “the world consists of atoms” contains a moment of absolute truth, but in general the truth of Democritus is not absolute, since it does not exhaust reality. Modern representations about the microcosm and elementary particles are more accurate, however, they do not exhaust reality as a whole. Each such truth contains elements of both relative and absolute truth.

Approaches according to which truth is only relative lead to relativism if it is believed that it is only absolute, then dogmatism.

Absolute truth in its broadest sense must not be confused with eternal or banal truths, such as “Socrates is a man” or “The speed of light in a vacuum is 300 thousand km/s.” Eternal truths are absolute only in relation to specific facts, and for more essential provisions, for example for scientific laws, and even more so for complex systems and reality in general, there are no complete and exhaustive truths.

In Russian, in addition to the concept of “truth”, the concept is also used "Truth", which is much broader in its meaning: truth is the combination of objective truth and moral justice, the highest ideal not only for scientific knowledge, but also for human behavior. As V.I. Dal said, truth is “truth in practice, truth in good.”

Lies and deception

Lies and deception act as the opposite of truth and indicate a discrepancy between judgment and reality. The difference between them lies in the fact of intentionality. So, delusion there is an unintentional discrepancy between judgments and reality, and lie - deliberately elevating misconceptions into truth.

The search for truth can thus be understood as a process constant struggle against lies and delusion.