Modern tupai give us some insight into what early primates might have looked like.
Life in the trees.

Early primates quickly became skilled tree climbers. To live in trees, you must first of all correctly judge the distance and cling tightly to the branches. The first task is solved by forward-facing eyes: this gives the animal binocular vision. To solve the second problem, tenacious fingers are needed. Both of these properties are the most important features primates. They all have fingers
The fingers on the hands are mobile, and the thumbs give the proper grip. Some apes, like humans, are also able to connect the tips of the large and index finger, forming the letter "o". This type of grip is used for very delicate manipulations. More importantly, primates have developed a large “thinking” part of the brain that coordinates vision and hand movements.

How it all began

Today there is only one species of people: homo sapiens (“homo” is Latin for “man”, and “sapien” means “thinking”). However, scientists today believe that from the moment the first hominids (human-like animals) appeared on Earth in different time There were several different species of such creatures. Between 15 and 7 million years ago, Ramapithecus lived in Africa, Europe and Asia. They were ape-like animals, about 1.2 m tall, with a flat face and teeth similar to those of humans. They may have spent part of their lives on the open plains, foraging for food using sticks and stones. Ramapithecus is probably one of the first hominids, but it does not appear to have been our direct ancestor. Today, scientists find in it more similarities with orangutans.

Our closest living relatives are the great apes. Gorillas and chimpanzees live in forested areas of West and East Africa. Gibbons are found in the rain forests of Southeast Asia, and orangutans inhabit the rainforests of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Of these, gibbons are the least human-like.
Very useful thumbs.

Why are thumbs needed? Have a friend tape your thumbs to your palms so that you can't move them. Now try to take an object with one hand, say, a pencil or a cup. Or try to hold as many objects as possible. You will very quickly see how important it is for all these manipulations to have a thumb separated from all the others.

"Southern Monkeys" from Africa

One of the earliest fossil finds associated with the “ape-man” is the skull of a child. It was dug up in 1924 near Taung, in what is now Botswana. This skull had both ape and human features, and its owner was named Australopithecus afarensis. Since then, many other fossil remains of australopithecines ("southern apes") have been found. All findings indicate that the brain of these animals was not very large (about 500 cm"), and large molars were used for grinding plants and fruits. Australopithecines were short (about 1.2 m in height)." Some were dense and stocky in build, others were fragile and graceful. Some scientists believe that these were
males and females of the same species. Some classify them as different species of Australopithecus. The "Southern Monkeys" are the subject of much debate and their origins are still unclear.

"Lucy", the "southern monkey", found in 1974
These are some fragments of the skull bones of Sinanthropus - one of the “straightened people”. Scientists managed to assemble these fragments into a single whole and restore the complete skull of Sinanthropus. He had a supraorbital ridge, like apes, and a protruding jaw. There was a bony protrusion along the top of the skull, and at the back there was a thickening in the form of a kind of ridge. Both the skull and brain of Sinanthropus are larger than those of Homo habilis.
The story of "Lucy".

In 1974, American anthropologist Doi Johansen made an outstanding discovery when he dug up the remains of a young female “southern ape” just over 1 m tall in Ethiopia. She was named “Lucy.” "Lucy's" brain and teeth resembled those of a monkey, but she probably walked on her crooked legs in an upright position. Before this discovery, scientists believed that the “southern apes” lived on Earth about 2 million years ago. However, the age of the remains of "Lucy" was determined to be approximately 3-3.6 million years. This means that the “southern monkeys” appeared on the planet more than a million years earlier than previously thought.

"Skillful Man"

At the same time that the “southern apes” were roaming Africa, another group of homipiids was developing side by side with them. They appeared a little later, about 2 million years ago. These were already the first real people, or “Habilids”. Perhaps their ancestors were more slender australopithecines. Homo haoilis ("handy man") was about the same height as the "southern apes", but had a larger brain - about 700 cm. "We know that "handy man" used a whole set of tools, which included fragments of stones , cutting and chopping tools (like knives), scrapers, as well as “tools” for making new tools.

The missing synanthrope.

Sinanthropus is a type of homo erectus. He lived in China about 500,000 years ago. In the 30s XX century scientists have discovered a rich collection of fossil remains of this ancient man in one of the caves near Beijing. In total, fragments of 45 skeletons were found, including pieces of 14 skulls, 14 lower jaws, 150 teeth, as well as bones of 14 children. In 1941, shortly before the war between America and Japan, it was decided to send these finds to America. Scientists did not want such a valuable cargo to fall into the hands of Japanese soldiers. However, the bones never arrived at their destination. They disappeared without a trace on their way to the ship that was supposed to take them to safety. The location of the remains of Sinanthropus 110 is unknown to this day.

Here is a photograph of the "Piltdown Man" skull, discovered in Sussex, England, at the beginning of the 20th century. Today it is recognized as one of the greatest hoaxes in the history of science.
Neanderthals.

Even before the last “straightened people” disappeared from the face of the Earth, another species of human beings appeared on it. Homo sapiens ("thinking man") first appeared about 250,000 years ago. After another 180,000 years (that is, 70,000 years ago), Neanderthal man settled in Europe. Compared to their predecessors, Neanderthals were larger in all respects, hiding behind a wide, convex forehead was a brain like that of a modern person - 1330 cm." We know a lot about Neanderthals. They lived during the Great Ice Age, so they had to wear clothes, made from animal skins, and shelter from the cold in the depths of caves. Average duration The lifespan of men was about 30 years, and that of women 23 years. Many of them suffered from arthritis. Most were right-handed. There are some indications that Neanderthals believed in afterlife: They solemnly buried the dead and even laid flowers on their graves.

Hunters of ancient people
Louis Leakey (1903-1972), Mary Leakey (b. 1913) and their son Richard (b. 1944) discovered many fossil remains of ancient people in the Oldowan Gorge in Tanzania. Their first important discovery was the discovery of Australopithecus, nicknamed the “nutcracker.” Later they discovered the first “skilled man”, and also found the remains of several “straightened people”. IN Lately Richard Leakey has been excavating in other areas of Africa.
These unique fossilized prints were discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978 in Tanzania. Their age is estimated at 3.75 million years, and they were imprinted in a layer of volcanic mud and ash, which later hardened. The result was something like a “plaster cast” of the feet of our distant ancestors who went out for a walk - a kind of prehistoric “family picnic”.
The man who never existed.

In 1912, several skull fragments and a broken jawbone of an ancient man were discovered near Piltdown in Sussex, England. At that time, the find became a real sensation, but soon some experts began to be overcome by doubts. In 1953, the Piltdown bones were carefully examined to determine their age. The result was unexpected. It turned out that the jaw bone belonged to a 500-year-old orangutan, and the skull belonged to an ordinary one. to modern man. The bones were coated with a special coating, and the teeth were carefully filed to give them a prehistoric appearance. All this turned out to be a skillful fake. Piltdown Man went down in the history of science as a hoax, exposed only 40 years after it took place. The “joker” himself was never found.

Head of a Neanderthal man.
A look into the future.

At first, human evolution occurred very slowly. It took almost 7 million years since the appearance of our ancient ancestors, so that humanity reaches the stage at which it learns to create the first cave paintings. But as soon as the “thinking man” firmly established himself on Earth, all human abilities began to develop rapidly. In just 100,000 years separating us from the first rock paintings, man has become the dominant form of life on Earth. We even managed to leave our home planet and begin space exploration.
It is difficult to say what people will be like after 10,000 years, but it is possible. increase
It’s arrogant to say that they will change a lot. In general, we have changed a lot over the past 400 years, and even since the beginning of this century. Today's soldier would hardly fit into knightly armor of the 15th century. The average height of a medieval warrior was 16^ cm. Nowadays, the average height of British soldiers is 172 cm. There is no way that the current supermodel could squeeze into the dress that her great-great-grandmother wore. Even if she managed to bring her waist to 45 cm, like her relative's victorian era, she would still be 30 cm taller! If our evolution continues in the same direction as it has so far, our faces will become increasingly flatter and our lower jaws will become smaller. Our brain will become larger, and we ourselves will most likely grow up. Well, because many of us. prefer a sedentary lifestyle, it is possible that our, so to speak, lower body will also increase!
As the Great Ice Age came to an end, modern people began to transition to a new way of life. Over time, they began to found settlements where large communities arose. The dawn of civilization was approaching. 10,000 years ago there were only about 10 million people in the entire world. However, around 4,000 years ago their numbers began to increase rapidly. By 55 BC, when Julius Caesar invaded the British Isles, the world population had reached 300 million. Today it is already 4 billion and continues to grow.

The “southern apes” may have already used stones and bones as tools, but the “skilled people” were the first to learn how to make these tools. A piece of stone, clamped between the thumb and all other fingers, served as a good cutting tool. The flatter stones were probably used to scrape meat from bones. Tools with sharp edges were made using stone chippers. Homo erectus invented more modern tools: they were made from flint fragments. Even more subtle “tools” were created by Neanderthals. They processed flint fragments using other stone tools, which they held with two fingers - the thumb and forefinger.
"A cut above."

Recent studies have shown that our ancestors switched to upright walking, that is, walking on two legs, probably in order to avoid overheating. On the hot African plains 4 million years ago, walking on two legs gave them a number of advantages. For a person in an upright position, the sun's rays fell vertically on his head, instead of “frying” his back. Because the top of the head has much less surface exposed to the sun than the back, our ancestors should have been less likely to overheat. This means they sweated less, which means they needed less water. This allowed ancient people to become “head and shoulders above” other animals in the struggle for existence.

This is what scientists believe our long-vanished relatives looked like. As you can see, our ancestors gradually became taller and the further they went, the less they looked like monkeys.
Where should the hair be?

The transition to upright walking had other important consequences. For example, a two-legged animal no longer needed thick hair, which protected other inhabitants of the savannah from the ruthless sun rays falling on their backs. As a result, with the exception of the hair that covered the part of the body of our ancestors most exposed to the sun's heat - namely the head - they turned into the notorious "naked monkeys".

Beneficial coolness

Having started to move on two yogas, the ancient people seemed to have opened another extremely important “evolutionary door”. In an upright position, a much larger part of the animal’s body moves away from the hot soil, and therefore from the heat that it emits. As a result, the body and head with the brain it contains overheat significantly less than if they were located closer to the ground. The cool wind, usually blowing 1-2 m above the ground, provided additional cooling of the body.
When scientists created powerful supercomputers, they had to equip them with a special cooling system. After all large computers They work very intensively and generate a huge amount of heat. It must be removed to prevent the computer from overheating. The same thing happens with the brain. By switching to upright walking, our ancestors thereby moved their own brains to a cooler environment, and this, combined with a very effective “cooling system,” allowed the brain to develop into a larger and more active one.

The man who came in from the cold
On September 19, 1991, a man whose age is 5300 years old returned to our world. Two tourists walking in the Austrian Alps suddenly came across the body of a man sticking out of the ice. There were scraps of clothing on the body, shoes on the feet, a quiver with two arrows, an axe, a flint for striking fire, a small flint dagger, something like a bag or backpack, a set of needles and a lot of hunting equipment. The Ice Man is the oldest corpse ever found. He lived on Earth almost 1000 years before the Egyptians began building their pyramids, and 3000 years before the first Romans appeared.

How did man appear on Earth?

Each of us at a certain stage of life is visited by the thought of who we are, where people came from on Earth. These intractable problems have haunted many philosophers for centuries. So far, no one has been able to provide irrefutable evidence of their theory, so we do not know exactly how man appeared on Earth. There are many versions on this matter, and none of them is considered the only correct one at the present time. Despite this, all hypotheses of the origin of man on Earth can be divided into 4 large groups.

Evolution theory

How did man appear on Earth according to the theory of evolution? Assumptions evolutionary theory lie in the fact that man descended from apes, that is, from higher primates. Gradual modification occurred under the influence of natural selection, and 4 stages were distinguished in it:

1. The lifetime of Australopithecus. In another way, they can be called “southern monkeys.” They were already distinguished by their upright posture, the ability to manipulate objects with their hands, and herd behavior. Australopithecus weighed 30-40 kg, and their height reached 120-130 cm.
2. Ancient man or Pithecanthropus. The ability to use fire was added to the previous characteristics, but the shape of the skull and facial skeleton retained monkey features.
3. Ancient man or Neanderthal. In terms of their general skeletal structure, they were similar to modern humans, but the skull was also different.
4. The appearance of modern man dates back to the beginning of the Late Paleolithic (70-35 thousand years ago).

The failure of the theory of evolution lies in the fact that scientists still cannot explain how mutations led to the formation of more complex forms of life. The fact is that in the process of mutation, a rather rare phenomenon, individual genes are damaged, which leads to a deterioration in quality new form. So far, not a single beneficial mutation has been found.

Theory of creation

How did the first people appear on Earth according to the theory of creation? According to creationism, man is created by God out of nothing, or the material is not biological. The most famous biblical version says that the first people appeared on Earth from clay - Adam and Eve. Other nations have their own versions and myths about this. Theology believes that this version does not require proof, the main thing is faith. Some modern trends in theology consider a version of the evolutionary theory, but indicate that man evolved from a monkey by God's will.

External intervention theory

There is also a theory of external intervention about where people came from on Earth. First of all, the obligatory presence of other civilizations is assumed here. And the appearance of people is directly related to their activities. Simply put, the theory of external intervention suggests that man is a descendant of aliens who landed on Earth in ancient times. There are variants of this theory:

• It is assumed that interbreeding of aliens with human ancestors occurred earlier.
• Homo sapiens emerged using genetic engineering methods.
• Homuncular method (in vitro).
• There is an extraterrestrial superintelligence that has the power to control the evolutionary development of life on Earth.

Theory of spatial anomalies

How did man appear on Earth according to the theory of spatial anomalies? This theory is similar to evolutionary, but it recognizes the presence of a certain program for the development of life and random factors. That is, there is a certain spatial anomaly or humanoid triad (matter, energy, aura). And anthropogenesis is an element of this anomaly. In humanoid universes, the biosphere develops along the same path, according to a certain program at the level of the aura or information substance. If conditions are favorable, a humanoid mind may emerge.

Every child, at a certain stage of his development, begins to think about where he came from. Humanity as a whole, accumulating knowledge along the way of its development, could not help but become interested in the question of how life originated on our planet and what processes led to the emergence of Homo Sapiens.

Unfortunately, today there is no reliable and consistent theory on this matter. We managed to go into space and create artificial intelligence, but we still have not made any progress in understanding our own origins. Everything we know about the origin of living organisms in general and humans in particular lies in the realm of unproven theories.

Origin of life on Earth

According to the generally accepted view today, life on the planet originated as a result of random chemical reactions that occurred. Water solution many chemical elements under the influence of powerful electrical discharges (lightning) served as a nutrient broth for the creation of the first molecules of the simplest proteins. It took millions of years of evolution for these protein molecules to form the simplest living cells, which subsequently managed to unite into complex multicellular organisms.


This theory, for all its simplicity and clarity, does not explain very many points. For example, the presence of every living creature in every cell remains completely incomprehensible. genetic code- a complex chain of protein molecules, which consists of only four “letters” and contains all the necessary information for the development of the cell. But even if we agree that such a complex structure arose by chance during spontaneous biochemical reactions, the further development of life on the planet contains too many “blind spots” for researchers.

Darwin's theory: not everything is so simple

The generally accepted theory of Darwin, which today underlies modern biology, is unable to explain the huge diversity of species of living beings, among which one can often find very strange specimens that are poorly adapted to biological competition. And the very path of development, according to which life developed from the simplest to more and more complex creatures, cannot always be confirmed with the help of archaeological excavations.

So, it is still unclear how birds and mammals could have evolved from lizards - science has not yet been able to discover a single organism with a “transitional” body structure or its remains. And the very theory of accumulation of gradual changes in morphology through random mutations turned out to be, to put it mildly, unconfirmed. Yes, changes in the structure of organisms can occur when external conditions change, but they, as a rule, are quite purposeful.


The number of non-viable mutations is too low to seriously talk about any kind of natural selection. Thus, laboratory mice raised at a lower ambient temperature than usual, acquire thick hair and a thick subcutaneous fat layer in the next generation. The percentage of "unsuccessful" mutations is so low that it can not be taken seriously. There is a completely purposeful change in species qualities, leaving no room for chance.

Human Origins

Until now, Darwin's theory has not been able to convincingly explain one of the main mysteries of biology - anthropogenesis, or the origin of Homo Sapiens. We all know that people belong to the class of primates, i.e. to the same class of living creatures as monkeys. However, there is still no convincing evidence of the existence of a common ancestor between humans and monkeys. All archaeological finds made at different times turned out to be, upon careful examination, either the fruit of misconceptions or more or less skillful forgeries.


However, the “divine” theory of the origin of people does not suit scientists. Darwinian natural selection is being replaced by more exotic assumptions, from the participation of intelligent external forces in this process - for example, aliens or a mysterious Supermind - to the appearance of people from somewhere in parallel spaces. This mystery, like many problems facing modern biology, is still waiting to be solved. Perhaps it will be found in the coming years, or perhaps humanity will find out the answer after several centuries.

Taxon- a classification unit in the taxonomy of plant and animal organisms.

The main evidence of human origin from animals is the presence of rudiments and atavisms in his body.

Rudiments- these are organs that have been lost in the process historical development(evolution) their meaning and function and remaining in the form of underdeveloped formations in the body. They are laid down during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: coccygeal vertebrae (remains of the skeleton of the tail), appendix (process of the cecum), body hair; ear muscles (some people can move their ears); third eyelid.

Atavisms- this is the manifestation, in individual organisms, of characteristics that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost during evolution. In humans, this is the development of a tail and hair throughout the body.

Historical past of people

The first people on Earth. The name of the ape-man - Pithecanthropus - was given to one of the earliest finds, made in the 19th century in Java. For a long time, this find was considered a transitional link from ape to man, the first representatives of the hominid family. These views were facilitated by morphological features: a combination of modern-looking bones of the lower limb with a primitive skull and intermediate brain mass. However, Pithecanthropus of Java is a rather late group of hominids. From the 20s of the twentieth century to the present, an important discovery was made in southern and eastern Africa: the remains of bipedal Plio-Pleistocene primates (from 6 to 1 million years old) were found. They marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - the reconstruction of these stages of hominid evolution based on direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.

The Age of the Bipedal Apes Australopithecus. The first australopithecus of East Africa - Zinjanthropus - was discovered by the spouses L. and M. Leakey. The brightest distinguishing feature Australopithecus - upright walking. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Upright walking is one of the oldest human acquisitions.

The first representatives of the human race in East Africa. Together with the massive australopithecines, other creatures lived in East Africa 2 million years ago. This first became known when, the next year after the discovery of Zinjanthropus, the remains of a miniature hominid were discovered, the brain volume of which was no less (and even more) than that of Australopithecus. It was later revealed that he was a contemporary of Zinjanthropus. The most important discoveries were made in the lowest layer, dating back to 2–1.7 million years. Its maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate when this layer was laid was more humid and its inhabitants were zinjanthropus and prezinjanthropus. The latter did not last long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were also found in this layer. Most often it was pebbles ranging in size from a walnut to 7–10 cm, with a few chips of the working edge. Initially it was assumed that the Zinjanthropes were able to do this, but after new discoveries it became obvious: either the tools were made by a more advanced Zinjanthropus, or both inhabitants were capable of such initial stone processing. Full Opposition Clamp Emergence thumb the hand should have been preceded by a period of predominance of a forceful grip, when the object was raked into a handful and clamped in the hand. Moreover, it was the nail phalanx of the thumb that experienced particularly strong pressure.

Prerequisites for anthropogenesis The common ancestors of apes and humans were gregarious, tree-dwelling monkeys in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arched spinal column with an S-shaped one, which gave it flexibility. An arched springy foot was formed, the pelvis expanded, rib cage became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, and their functions became more complex. The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path of natural selection of mutations useful for labor activity. Along with upright walking, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was the herd lifestyle, which, with the development of work activity and the exchange of signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.

Stages of human development. There are three stages in human evolution: ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people. Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker.

Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), who were called Cro-Magnons. Increased brain volume (1,600 cm3), well-developed articulate speech; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock painting), clothing, jewelry, bone and stone tools, the first domesticated animals - everything indicates that real man finally separated from his animal-like ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern humans form one species - Homo sapiens. Many years passed before people moved from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering) to a producing economy. They learned to grow plants and tame some animals. In the evolution of Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance; the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably.

Races of man

All modern humanity belongs to one species - Homo sapiens. The unity of humanity follows from common origin, similarity of structure, unlimited crossing of representatives of different races and the fertility of offspring from mixed marriages. Inside the view - Homo sapiens- There are five major races: Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, American. Each of them is divided into small races. Differences between races come down to features of skin color, hair, eyes, shape of the nose, lips, etc. These differences arose in the process of adaptation of human populations to local natural conditions. It is believed that the black skin absorbed ultraviolet rays. Narrow eyes protected from harsh sunlight in open spaces; a wide nose cooled the inhaled air faster by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, a narrow nose warmed the cold inhaled air better, etc.

But thanks to work, man quickly escaped the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost their adaptive significance.

Human races began to take shape, believed to have started to take shape, about 30–40 thousand years ago during the process of human settlement of the Earth, and then many racial characteristics had adaptive significance and were fixed by natural selection in the conditions of a certain geographical environment. All human races are characterized by species-wide characteristics of Homo sapiens, and all races are absolutely equal in biological and mental respects and are at the same level of evolutionary development.

There is no sharp boundary between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, whose representatives have smoothed out or mixed the features of the main masses. It is assumed that in the future, differences between races will completely disappear and humanity will be racially homogeneous, but with many morphological variants.

The races of a person should not be confused with concepts nation, people, language group. Different groups can be part of one nation, and the same races can be part of different nations.

Abstract on the discipline: Story

On the topic of: Theories of human origins

Completed by EL-1 student

Day department

Naumov Eduard

No. student tickets:

Teacher:

Riga - 2009

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… p.3

Theory of evolution……………………………………………………………p.4

Theory of creation (Creationism)……………………………………………………… p.7

The theory of external intervention.…………………………………………….page 10

Conclusion………………………….…………………………………………………………… p.11

List of used literature……………………………………………………………page 12

Introduction

People have been interested in their origins since ancient times. Attempts to understand and explain how man arose can be found in the most different nations in their beliefs, legends and stories. With the development of man himself, the need for knowledge of his origins and roots has constantly increased. Consciousness and worldview expanded. Man began to think about the origins of his family, but more consciously and purposefully. Over the course of centuries and human evolution, many scientists, writers, and various researchers have expressed their points of view about the origin of the human race. This is the subject of many tales, fictions, legends, and unshakable truths that were discovered by outstanding scientists different countries, peoples and times, starting with biblical heroes and thinkers and ending with our contemporaries.

There are a number of different theories explaining the emergence of man on Earth. In this work we will consider the main ones:

Evolution theory

An attempt to explain the origin of species was made by Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an English naturalist and creator of the theory of evolution. He is the author of many works: “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” (1859), summarizing the results of his own observations and the achievements of contemporary biology and breeding practice; “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871) substantiated the hypothesis of the origin of man from an ape-like ancestor. According to the theory of evolution, which was proposed by Charles Darwin, the diversity of plant and animal species inhabiting the Earth is the result of frequent, completely random mutations, which, cumulative over millennia, through the so-called “transitional links” lead to the emergence of new species. Then natural selection comes into play. Interspecific struggle exterminates or pushes to the periphery species that are unadapted to living conditions in a given biological “niche” under given external conditions, while at the same time allowing the rapid development of species that, by pure chance, turned out to be better adapted for survival. In the scientific world there is a group of scientists dealing with the problem of the emergence of man, who, based on Darwin’s theory, created the science of anthropology, which has such a concept as “anthropogenesis”. Darwinian scientists call anthropogenesis the process of separating humans from the animal world. They suggested that the distant ancestors of humans are apes, which went through several stages of development on the way to the formation of the final result. The evolutionary theory of anthropogenesis has an extensive set of diverse evidence - paleontological, archaeological, biological, genetic, cultural, psychological and others. However, much of this evidence can be interpreted ambiguously, allowing opponents of evolutionary theory to challenge it. According to this theory, the following main stages of human evolution take place:

the time of successive existence of human anthropoid ancestors (Australopithecus);

Australopithecus or "southern apes" - highly organized, upright primates, are considered to be the original forms in the human ancestry. Australopithecines inherited many properties from their arboreal ancestors, the most important of which were the ability and desire to handle objects with their hands in a variety of ways (manipulation) and the high development of herd relations. They were completely terrestrial creatures, relatively small in size - on average body length 120-130 cm, weight 30-40 kg. Their characteristic feature there was a bipedal gait and an erect body position, as evidenced by the structure of the pelvis, skeleton of the limbs and skull. Free upper limbs made it possible to use sticks, stones, etc. The brain section of the skull was relatively large in size, and the facial part was shortened. The teeth were small, densely spaced, without diastemas, with a tooth pattern characteristic of humans. They lived on open plains such as savannas.

the existence of the most ancient people: Pithecanthropus (the most ancient man, or archanthropus);

For the first time, fossil remains of ancient people, called archanthropes, were discovered by the Dutchman E. Dubois on the island of Java in 1890. The archanthropes already knew how to use fire, thereby standing a step higher than their predecessors. Pithecanthropus are erect creatures, of medium height and dense build, which, however, have retained many ape-like features, both in the shape of the skull and in the structure of the facial skeleton.

the stage of the Neanderthal, that is, ancient man or paleoanthrope.

In 1856, in the Neanderthal Valley in Germany, the remains of a creature that lived 150 - 40 thousand years ago, called a Neanderthal, were discovered. They have been found in fossil form in another four hundred places in the Northern Hemisphere of Eurasia. The era of the Great Glaciation coincided with the era of the Neanderthals. He had a brain volume close to modern man, but a sloping forehead, brow ridges, and a low cranium; lived in caves, hunting mammoths. Burials of corpses were discovered for the first time among Neanderthals.

development modern people(neoanthropes).

The appearance of modern humans dates back to the beginning of the Late Paleolithic (70-35 thousand years ago). It is associated with a powerful leap in the development of productive forces, the formation of tribal society and the consequence of the process of completion biological evolution Homo sapiens. Neoanthropes were tall people, proportionally built. The average height of men is 180-185 cm, women - 163-160 cm. The first people of modern appearance are called Cro-Magnons (after the neoanthrope site in Cro-Magnon, France). Cro-Magnons were distinguished by their long legs due to the large length of their lower legs. A powerful torso, wide chest, and highly developed muscle relief make a strong impression on his contemporaries. Neoanthropes are multi-layered sites and settlements, flint and bone tools, and residential structures. This includes a complex burial ritual, decorations, and the first masterpieces. visual arts etc. The transition of human society to the Upper Paleolithic (35-10 thousand years ago) coincided with the completion of anthropogenesis - the formation of a person of the modern physiological type.

So, the line of human evolution is built as follows: “Homo habilis” (Australopithecus) – “Homo erectus” (Pithecanthropus) – “Neanderthal Homo” (paleoanthropus) – “Homo sapiens” (Cro-Magnon).

The model of this theory of the origin of man from apes, which suited most scientists a hundred years ago, is now bursting at all the seams, unable to withstand the flow of new discoveries, as well as the existence of other theories of the origin of man, which we will consider below.

Theory of creation (Creationism)

Creationism (from the English creation - creation) is a philosophical and methodological concept in which the main forms of the organic world (life), humanity, planet Earth, as well as the world as a whole, are considered as intentionally created by some superbeing or deity. Followers of creationism develop a set of ideas - from purely theological and philosophical to those claiming to be scientific, although in general modern science community is critical of such ideas.

The best known biblical version is that man was created by one God. Thus, in Christianity, God created the first man on the sixth day of creation in his own image and likeness, so that he would rule the entire earth. Having created Adam from the dust of the ground, God breathed into him the breath of life. Later, the first woman, Eve, was created from Adam's rib. This version has more ancient Egyptian roots and a number of analogues in the myths of other peoples. The religious concept of the origin of man is unscientific, mythological in nature and therefore in many ways did not suit scientists.
Various evidence has been put forward for this theory, the most important of which is the similarity of myths and legends of different peoples telling about the creation of man. The theory of creationism is adhered to by followers of almost all the most common religious teachings (especially Christians, Muslims, Jews).

Creationists for the most part reject evolution, while citing indisputable facts in their favor. For example, computer experts are reported to have reached a dead end in their attempt to replicate human vision. They were forced to admit that it was impossible to artificially reproduce the human eye, especially the retina with its 100 million rods and cones, and the neural layers that perform at least 10 billion computational operations per second. Even Darwin admitted: “The supposition that the eye ... could be developed by natural selection may seem, I confess frankly, to be extremely absurd.”

Let's carry out comparative analysis two theories we have already considered:

1) The process of the emergence of the Universe and the origin of life on Earth

The evolutionary model is based on the principle of gradual change and believes that life on Earth has reached a complex and highly organized state through natural development. The creation model highlights a special, initial moment of creation, when the most important inanimate and living systems were created in a complete and perfect form.

2) Driving forces.

The evolutionary model states that the driving forces are the unchanging laws of nature. Thanks to these laws, the genesis and improvement of all living things takes place. Evolutionists also include here the laws of biological selection, based on the struggle of species for survival. Creation model, based on the fact that natural processes currently do not create life, do not shape species and improve them, creationists argue that all living things were created supernaturally. This presupposes the presence in the Universe of a Supreme Intelligence, capable of conceiving and realizing everything that currently exists.

3) Driving forces and their manifestation at the present time.

Evolutionary model: due to the immutability and progression of driving forces, the natural laws that created all living things are still in effect today. Being derivative, their actions, evolution continues to this day. The creation model, after the completion of the act of creation, the processes of creation gave way to processes of conservation that support the Universe and ensure that it fulfills a certain purpose. Therefore, in the world around us we can no longer observe the processes of creation and improvement.

4) Attitude to the existing world order.

The evolutionary model is now existing world was initially in a state of chaos and disorder. Over time and thanks to the action of natural laws, it becomes more organized and complex. Processes testifying to the constant ordering of the world must occur at the present time. The creation model represents the world in an already created, completed form. Since the order was initially perfect, it can no longer improve, but must lose its perfection over time.

5) Time factors.

The evolutionary model, in order to bring the Universe and life on Earth to the modern complex state through natural processes, it takes quite a long time, therefore the age of the Universe is determined by evolutionists at 13.7 billion years, and the age of the Earth at 4.6 billion years. The creation model, the world was created in an incomprehensibly short time. Because of this, creationists operate with incomparably smaller numbers in determining the age of the Earth and life on it.

In recent years, attempts have been made to scientifically prove what is described in the Bible. An example here are two books written by the famous physicist J. Schroeder, in which he argues that the biblical story and scientific data do not contradict each other. One of Schroeder's important tasks was to reconcile the biblical account of the creation of the world in six days with the scientific facts about the existence of the universe for 15 billion years.

Therefore, while recognizing limited opportunities science in general in clarifying the problems of human life, we must treat with due understanding the fact that a number of outstanding scientists (among them laureates Nobel Prize) recognize the existence of the Creator, both the entire surrounding world and the various forms of life on our planet.

The creation hypothesis can neither be proven nor disproved and will always exist along with scientific hypotheses of the origin of life. Creationism is thought of as God's Creation. However, some now view it as a result of activities highly developed civilization, creating various forms of life and observing their development.

External intervention theory

This theory is gaining more and more supporters every day.
According to this theory, the appearance of people on Earth is, one way or another, connected with
activities of other civilizations. In the simplest version of the alien theory of human origins, people are direct descendants of aliens who landed on Earth in prehistoric times (as evidence of this theory, photographs of Mars are offered, on which you can see the remains of buildings similar to the Egyptian pyramids). But there are also more complex options. Such as the crossing of aliens with the ancestors of people; the creation of Homo sapiens using genetic engineering methods; management of the evolutionary development of earthly life
by the forces of extraterrestrial superintelligence and the evolutionary development of earthly life and intelligence according to the program originally laid down by the extraterrestrial superintelligence. By the way, two latest versions in their concept they are not much different from the theory of divine intervention. In addition, there are other, to varying degrees, fantastic hypotheses of anthropogenesis associated with the theory of external intervention. The most common is the spatial anomaly hypothesis.

Followers of this hypothesis interpret anthropogenesis as an element of the development of a stable spatial anomaly - the humanoid triad Matter - Energy - Aura, characteristic of many planets of the Earthly Universe and its analogues in parallel spaces. The concept of the spatial anomaly hypothesis is as follows: in humanoid universes on most habitable planets, the biosphere develops along the same path, programmed at the level of the Aura - information substance. Given favorable conditions, this path leads to the emergence of a humanoid mind of the earth type. If conditions are not favorable, then the planet remains barren. In principle, this hypothesis is a kind of hybrid between Darwinian theory and divine intervention. On the one hand, it does not exclude development through evolution, and on the other hand, it recognizes the existence higher power, which, along with random factors, controls the evolutionary process. And it is quite possible that it is the hypothesis of spatial anomalies, as one of the branches of the theory of external intervention, that will turn out to be closest to the truth. In any case, now many representatives of various scientific directions agree that the reason for the origin of man must be sought not only on Earth, but also in higher spheres, for example, in space.

Conclusion

The origin of man is the subject of study of several sciences (anthropology, theology, philosophy, history, paleontology, etc.). In accordance with this, there are many theories of the origin of man, in particular, as a social individual, a biological being, a product of the activities of extraterrestrial civilizations, etc. None of them existing theories the origin of man is not strictly proven. Ultimately, the criterion for choice for each individual is belief in one or another theory; everyone has the right to represent their ancestors in their own way.

List of used literature

Nizovsky A.Yu., Nepomnyashchy N.N., 100 great secrets - M.: Veche, 2000. - 576 pp. The abstract also uses materials published on the Internet:

http://nauka-i-religia.narod.ru/evo-kreac.html