The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. - a time of tangible quantitative and qualitative changes in the Russian economy. Domestic industry grew at a high rate. Accelerated economic growth was greatly facilitated by the policy of accelerated industrialization of the country.

The connections between the socio-economic base and the political-cultural superstructure in any society are not direct and simple. Often, the pre-crisis state of society contributes to the flourishing of culture, and economic prosperity can lead to its withering.

Changes in the socio-economic system of the country that occurred in the second half of the 19th century had a noticeable impact on the development of the culture of the people. The era of industrial capitalism created a need for educated technical personnel, for specialists in a wide variety of profiles, which people from the noble intelligentsia could no longer satisfy. If the latter previously played a leading role in all areas of the country’s cultural life, then from the late 50s to the early 60s, the intelligentsia of various ranks was increasingly included in it.

Having received an education, commoners joined the ranks of the intelligentsia in the fields of science and technology, literature and art. The best representatives of the intelligentsia, reflecting liberation ideas in their creativity, contributed to the development of the democratic trend in culture.

During the post-reform period, noticeable changes took place in the culture and life of the urban and rural population. They were especially noticeable in cities. Representing centers for the development of industry and trade, the revolutionary movement, large cities were at the same time centers of cultural life. They housed higher educational institutions, scientific institutions, editorial offices of magazines and newspapers, theaters, museums, libraries, convened congresses of scientists, and operated scientific societies.

After the reform of 1861 The network of urban primary schools grew, and the desire of the urban proletariat for education and culture intensified. The intensifying revolutionary struggle had a great influence on cultural development. Already in the 70s, along with revolutionary propaganda, the populists conducted general education classes with workers. Significant changes are taking place in the village. Capitalism eliminated the immobility of the rural population and caused an influx of it into the cities. Peasants who came to work in the city, under the influence of communication with workers, acquired new knowledge and cultural skills. Among the peasants, understanding of the need for literacy grew, the number of people willing to study, and interest in books grew. But the difficult economic situation of the masses often became an obstacle to enlightenment. The life of the peasantry and its family structure are gradually changing. Thanks to the involvement of women in hired labor, patriarchal relationships in the family collapsed and the role of women increased.

However, the capitalist era in the history of Russia was short-lived - capitalism as a socio-economic formation existed for a little more than half a century. The autocracy, being a feudal political superstructure even in the post-reform era, did not fundamentally change its attitude towards culture, especially towards the problem of educating the people. Progressive capitalism created the need for a high level of education of people, the need for total literacy of the population; the policy of autocracy gave rise to a numerous movement of commoners, who, together with enlightenment, brought revolutionary ideas to the masses.

A distinctive feature of the social and cultural life of the first post-reform decades was the spread of education.

A broad movement began in the country to create public schools, change teaching methods in them, and grant the right to education to women. Much work to disseminate education among the people was carried out by literacy committees and public educational organizations associated with zemstvos. The Moscow Literacy Committee, which arose back in 1845, first raised the issue of introducing universal primary education. In 1861, the St. Petersburg Literacy Committee was created under the Free Economic Society. His goal was to “promote the spread of literacy primarily among peasants who had emerged from serfdom.” Similar educational organizations arose in Tomsk, Samara, Kharkov and other cities of Russia. They carried out work on compiling a catalog of books for primary school, writing textbooks, raising funds for the needs of public education.

The development of capitalist relations, the formation of an industrial society, the growth of the urban population, the emergence of new means of communication and communication, the creation of a new type of army urgently required an increase in higher and specialized education. Meanwhile, the situation in public education was difficult. Tsarism viewed culture as the ideological side of the monarchical system and supported such education, science, art and literature that contributed to the strengthening of this system. According to historians, in the middle of the 19th century. the number of literate people was only 6% of the total population. There were 8227 primary schools, with 450 thousand students, 75 gymnasiums - 18 thousand, and six universities - 5 thousand students. 80% of students in secondary and high schools were nobles. The progressive public of Russia advocated the development general education, which should be the basis of the professional, and the elimination of the class of the school.

The outstanding scientist-teacher K. D. Ushinsky (1834-1871) is the founder of the public school and scientific pedagogy in Russia. The basis of Ushinsky's pedagogical theory is the idea of ​​national education. He established the principle of unity of teaching and upbringing in Russian didactics. He embodied his pedagogical ideas in textbooks for elementary schools." Child's world". "Native word."

During the period of school reforms of the 60s. For the lower classes, the network of primary schools, public city, district and rural schools, and parochial schools expanded. New educational institutions also emerged in the cities - Sunday schools for adults, the number of which was already in the early 60s. reached 16. Since the late 80s. their activities intensified. The merit of these schools in spreading literacy and knowledge among the population is enormous. The role of the peasant school is significant, in which in the early 90s. Up to 100 thousand people studied. But the main link in primary education was the zemstvo public school. In 1864-1874. About 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened, which were distinguished by better teaching methods than in state ones.

The dominant type high school Classical gymnasiums with the teaching of Greek and Latin and real schools with a predominant teaching of natural science and exact disciplines were established.

In the post-reform years, all-class women's gymnasiums were created, as well as higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kyiv. In 1882, a women's medical institute was opened. With the opening of Tomsk University in 1888, the development of higher education in Siberia began. At the beginning of the 20th century. A university was opened in Saratov. In connection with the technical renewal of industrial production, transport and communications, the number of industry universities has increased. Polytechnic, technological, and agricultural higher educational institutions were opened. By the end of the 19th century. In Russia, there were more than 60 state universities, in which about 30 thousand students studied. In 1880, 77.8% of the education budget came from contributions from rural societies and district zemstvos.

In 1893, there were 44,545 government schools in Russia with 2.7 million students, 567 secondary schools with a student population of 159 thousand, and 9 universities with 14 thousand students. About 50% of the total number of students in secondary and high schools were nobles.

According to the 1897 census, only 21% of the Russian population could read. In general, the possibilities of Russian education lagged behind the needs of the country.

Various means of enlightenment and education contributed to the rise in the cultural level of the population. The printing industry, which became in the second half of the 19th century. a separate branch of capitalist production, increased output. In 1894, there were 1,315 printing houses publishing 804 periodicals (of which 112 were daily X newspapers), 10651 books. By the end of the 19th century. Russia took third place in the world in terms of the number of titles of published literature. However, there were only 2812 bookstores and shops, mainly in capitals and large cities, the village was deprived of the opportunity to purchase the necessary literature. In 1980, there were only 0.16 copies of a book per person

In the 80s and 90s. major publishers were I. D. Sytin (1851 - 1934), who produced large quantities of cheap books for the people, textbooks, children's books, calendars, collected works of Russian classics, etc., and I. N. Granata, A. S. Suvorin (1834-1912), F. F. Pavlenkov (1839-1900, Soykin (1862-1938).

A significant role in public life was played by magazines aimed at the educated strata of Russian society: “Sovremennik”, “Otechestvennye zapiski”, “Russian Word”, “Delo”, etc. Satirical magazines and leaflets were popular - “Whistle”, “Iskra”, “Gudok”, “Splinter”, “Niva”, etc.

In the second half of the 19th century. Compared to the previous period, the number of special, scientific, departmental and public libraries increased; in 1861, a public library was opened in Moscow at the Rumyantsev Museum (now the Russian State Library), the fund of which initially consisted of collections of books, manuscripts, and works of art by Count N. P. Rumyantsev (1754 - 1826), then the library fund included collections of books by G. R. Derzhavin, II. Y. Chaadaev, Russian entrepreneur and publisher K. T. Soldatenkov. The number of publicly accessible public and private libraries has increased in the country.

The Historical and Polytechnic museums and the Tretyakov Gallery were also opened in Moscow. The Imperial Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg in 1898.

Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the 19th century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, gave scientific reports, and published articles in scientific publications.

New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural History, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, the Russian Technical Society (1866). Physics and mathematics societies were created at all Russian universities. In the 70s There were more than 20 scientific societies in Russia.

St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P. L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.

An algebraic school arose in Kyiv, headed by D. A. Grave (1863 - 1939 A brilliant chemist who created the periodic system chemical elements, was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). He proved the inner strength between several species chemical substances. The periodic table was the foundation for the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far forward. D. I. Mendeleev’s work “Fundamentals of Chemistry” was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was published seven times during his lifetime.

Scientists N. N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A. M. Butlerov (1828-1886) are the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian organic chemists.

The founder of the Russian physical school, A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896), made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which gained recognition throughout the world.

Of the inventions and discoveries of P. N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called “Yablochkov candle” - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison, A. N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for filament.

The discoveries of A. S. Popov (1859-1905) became world famous; on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a “lightning detector” - a radio receiver, which very soon found practical application.

A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s he was working on creating an airplane. N. E. Zhukovsky (1848-1921) author of research in the field of solid mechanics, astronomy, mathematics, hydrodynamics, hydraulics, and the theory of machine control. He created a unified scientific discipline - experimental and theoretical aerodynamics. He built one of the first wind tunnels in Europe, determined the lifting force of an aircraft wing and developed a method for calculating it.

The works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics, were of outstanding importance. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale; he was the first to indicate the ways of development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.

Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P. N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.

The successes of the biological sciences have been enormous. Russian scientists discovered a number of laws for the development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology

II. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) - the founder of the natural science direction in psychology and the creator of the Russian physiological school. The scientific interests of I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) were the physiology of the brain. I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1915) - an outstanding embryologist, microbiologist and pathologist who made a great contribution to the development of science. He is the founder (together with A. O. Kovalevsky, 1840-1901) of a new scientific discipline - comparative embryology and the doctrine of phagocytosis, which is of great importance in modern microbiology and pathology. His works were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905 (together with P. Ehrlich).

The largest representative of Russian science was K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920). V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work “Russian Chernozem”, recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types. The founder of the Russian geological scientific school, A.P. Karpinsky (1846/47-1936) and A.A. Inostrantsev, did a lot in the study of the North of Russia, the Urals and the Caucasus.

Expeditions to study Central and Central Asia and the Ussuri region of IM aroused great interest in the world. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), who first described the nature of these regions. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) - head of the Russian Geographical Society, explored the Tien Shan, I. N. Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888) - Russian scientist, traveler, public figure and humanist.

Social sciences developed successfully, leading among them was history. Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of Russian history.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of historical views of Westerners (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, T. T. Granovsky, I. S. Turgenev) and Slavophiles (A. S. Khomyakov, the Kireevsky brothers, Aksakovs, Yu. F. Samarin) with Over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict. Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe was at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and showing the way to the rest of humanity.

Slavophiles argued that there was no single universal civilization, and, therefore, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent, original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the “national spirit” that permeates all aspects of collective life. For Russia, this spirit is the Orthodox faith and the associated principles of inner truth and spiritual freedom.

Despite all their ideological differences, Slavophiles and Westerners unexpectedly agreed on practical issues of Russian life: both movements had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press and speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.

In the post-reform years, philology and linguistics were developed. I. I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) prepared works on the history of the Old Church Slavonic language and ancient Russian literature. His merit is also the creation of the St. Petersburg School of Slavists. V. I. Dal (1801-1872) - creator of the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" (over 200 thousand words), which, unlike academic dictionaries of that time, contains living vocabulary folk speech, collected by the author in different regions of Russia, as well as the collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” (over 30 thousand proverbs and sayings). The development of Russian history was carried out by a number of major historians. In the 50-70s. The talented Russian historian SM worked on the 29-volume publication “History of Russia from Ancient Times”. Soloviev (1820-1879). Based on vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.

V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) read the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with the economic-geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N. I. Kostomarov (1817-1885), much attention is paid to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine with the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of “Russian history and biographies of its main figures.” Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westerners, who, despite the radical divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.

Development of literature, theater and music

The dominant trend in literature and art of the second half of the 19th century. was the method of critical realism, the fundamental principle of which was a truthful reflection of reality and understanding of the depicted phenomena from the point of view of their compliance with social progress. Enormous social reach, offensive, accusatory spirit, addressing topical issues - this is what defined literature post-reform period. Russian literature was distinguished not only by its critical attitude to reality, it exposed evil, looked for ways to combat this evil, and carried out a socially transformative mission. Ideological completeness, deep penetration into life phenomena, rejection of injustice, richness of artistic expression literary works determined the leading role of literature in the development of other types of art.

In the second half of the 19th century. and the first decade of the 20th century. accounts for the work of the artist of thought and words L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), who created such masterpieces as the stories "Childhood. Adolescence. Youth", "Hadji Murat", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich", "The Kreutzer Sonata", novels " War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection", dramas "The Power of Darkness", "Fruits of Enlightenment", "Living Corpse", etc.

Russian literature of the post-reform decades can be considered a phenomenon of European artistic culture of the 19th century. No country in the world at that time had such correct and highly spiritual literature. The realistic dictatorship of Russia reflected the entire range of problems of a historical and religious nature, comprehended with scientific accuracy and philosophical depth.

Each of the galaxy of great writers saw the future of Russia differently. But all of them were united by a love for the Fatherland, a thirst for its prosperity through the free and honest labor of all members of society. Many people wrote about the need to increase the well-being of the peasantry - V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev. The recognized master of populist poetry of these years was N. A. Nekrasov (1821-1877). He entered Russian culture as a “sorrower of the people’s grief,” a defender of ordinary peasants against oppressors of all stripes. Nekrasov's poetry is realistic and to some extent comparable to realistic prose. It is characterized by the poet’s ability to objectively and accurately evaluate this or that fact, this or that event:

A different role in Russian culture was played by the brilliant writer F. M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). According to the apt definition of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, Dostoevsky sought answers to pressing questions of our time “in the most distant quests of humanity.” Possessing a unique gift of prophecy and the ability to analyze the movements of the human soul, the writer professed ideas that went beyond the ideas of a specific historical period of time into the sphere of the highest timeless interests of people's lives. He draws images of the people in accordance with the logic of characters and the truth of life, connecting good and evil.

Chekhov opened new paths in the development of domestic and world drama. In his plays, he abandoned the tradition of dividing characters into “positive” and “negative”. The character of Chekhov's heroes develops on the basis of a multifaceted analysis of various motives of behavior. Chekhov sensitively grasped the alarming sign of the times - the lack of mutual understanding between people. His characters are fenced off by an invisible wall, they listen, but do not seem to hear each other, plunging into the world of their own experiences.

The historical turning point in the development of Russian theater is associated with Chekhov's plays "The Seagull", "Three Sisters", " The Cherry Orchard", staged at the Moscow Art Theater by K. S. Stanislavsky and Vl. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko And - " The Seagull" (1895-1896) amazed contemporaries with its lyricism and subtle symbolism. The love vicissitudes underlying the play develop sharply and dramatically.

The fine arts of the post-reform period, like literature, were closely connected with the turbulent processes of social life. It reflected debates about ways to transform Russia, a harsh critical assessment of social reality, populist views on the peasantry, and the eternal Russian longing for perfection and a moral ideal. Common features of painting and literature are journalisticism, a realistic assessment of everyday and personal phenomena through the prism of generalized typification and social analysis. The moral and educational problems that both literature and fine art tried to solve are also common.

The social function of painting of this period changed radically. If the art of classicism was subordinated to the idea of ​​decorating life, then in the art of the 60s - 70s. the aesthetic moment was no longer considered the main thing. It seemed much more important to artists to truthfully reflect social problems, thoughts and feelings of representatives of various classes. The desire to keep up with the times, educational beliefs and illusions gave rise to critical painting, highlighting situations of national misfortune. Belief in the social significance of art contributed to the formation of a galaxy of artists who found their calling in reflecting the world of poverty, oppression, and lawlessness. Among them is the outstanding master V. G. Perov (1834-1882).

Sensitive to changes in the social climate, the artist reflected in his work the development of mentalities of the 60s - 80s.

The development of theater in the second half of the 19th century is inextricably linked with the name of A. N. Ostrovsky. He created the national Russian theater, which became “a sign of the maturity of the nation, as well as academies, universities, and museums.” Realistic plays by A. N. Ostrovsky, full of deep psychologism, contributed to the establishment of critical realism on the Russian stage. The main centers of theatrical culture were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg.

Russian opera art was improved.

Music, painting, and theater are inextricably linked with the development of literature. Late XIX - early XX centuries. - the period of achievements of Russian musical culture associated with the names of P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M. A. Balakirev, T. A. Cui, S. Rachmaninova, A.K. Glazunov, SI. Taneyev, A. N. Scriabin, I. F. Stravinsky and others.

In the musical culture of the second half of the 19th century. A special place is occupied by the “Mighty Handful”, or “New Russian Musical School”. This is a group consisting of five Russian composers - M. A. Balakirev (1837-1910), A. P. Borodin (1833-1887), Ts. Cui (1835-1918), M. P. Mussorsky (1839-1881) and NA. Rimsky-Korsakov, took shape in the late 50s and early 60s. The goals and aesthetic positions of the circle members were influenced by the views of the Russian art and music critic V.V. Stasov (1834-1906).

The composers of the “Mighty Handful” in their work developed the traditions of classical music by M. I. Glinka and A. S. Dargomyzhsky, widely expanded the boundaries of the genres of symphonic, operatic, instrumental music, enriched them with new forms, bringing them closer to topical issues public life. During the period of activity of the "Mighty Handful" some of the best works of the circle members were created: the oriental fantasy "Islamey", the symphonic poem "Rus" by M. Balakireva; First Symphony by A. Borodin; operas "William Ratcliffe" and "The Mandarin's Son" Ts. Cui; symphonic film "Night on Bald Mountain", opera "Boris Godunov" M. Mussorgsky; First and Second symphonies, opera "Pskovian Woman" N. Rimsky-Korsakov.

According to Stasov, three most important features were characteristic of the music of the new school: the absence of prejudices and blind faith, the desire for nationality and “its extreme inclination towards program music.” Composers called for the creation of national music, drawing melodies from folk songs and turning to subjects of social history.

The turn of Russian fine art towards critical realism began in the late 50s. XIX century The most important trends in the development of painting were determined by artists who united on the initiative of I. I. Kramskoy (1837-1887), N. N. Ge (1831-1894), V. G. Perov (1833-1882) and the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. The ideological leader of the association was I. N. Kramskoy.

The goal of the Partnership was defined as the need to promote the painting of Russian artists. To achieve this, “traveling art exhibitions were to be organized in “all cities of the empire” in order to provide residents of the provinces with the opportunity to get acquainted with Russian art and follow its successes.”

Already the first exhibition of paintings by the Wanderers in 1871 showed that a new direction in painting had emerged, which was characterized by a rejection of academic canons, a transition to critical realism, citizenship, and the depiction of Russian reality. In an effort to serve the people with their creativity, the Peredvizhniki turned to its history and nature, glorified the greatness, strength, beauty and wisdom of the Russian people, and decisively condemned autocracy and oppression.

Realism in Russian fine art manifested itself in the works of artists I. I. Levitan, I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. A. Serov, sculptors ST. Konenkova, A.S. Golubkina.

I. E. Repin (1844-1930) worked in the genres of portraits, everyday life, landscapes, and history. Deeply folk, associated with democratic ideas, the work of I. E. Repin is one of the pinnacles of Russian classical art.

Late XIX - early XX centuries. - this is the time when artistic culture was represented not only by critical realism, but also by a number of other trends and methods; it went down in history as the Silver Age of Russian culture. This is a complex, contradictory rise and at the same time decline of culture. There was a departure from the canons of classical art and a search for refined, elite forms of expression of thoughts and feelings in work of art. The ideological basis of culture was “critical idealism” - a type of religious and philosophical teaching, in particular, the philosophy of Vl. Solovyova.

In the context of contradictory trends in the development of history, many artists declared the cult of creativity, and themselves - harbingers of an imminent world catastrophe. They relied on art as a means of uniting people, turning to such trends as symbolism, acmeism, futurism, avant-garde, which became the basis of modernism as an artistic and aesthetic direction of the 20th century. The ideal of symbolism was D. S. Merezhkovsky (1866 - 1941), he proclaimed “pure” art, its content is a mystical plot and the messianic role of culture, a grotesque perception of reality. The symbolists included V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub,

3. Gippius, A. Bely, K. Balmont (1867-1942) was one of the leaders of the literature of symbolism. Among the Symbolists it also began creative path A. A. Blok (1880-1921). Blok's lyrics are a great asset of Russian national culture.

Symbolism in Russian literature was replaced by Acmeism (from the Greek Acme - highest degree something, blooming power), whose representatives were the poets N. Gumilyov (1886-1921), A. Akhmatova (1889-1966), O. Mandelstam (1891-1938), M. Kuzmin (1875-1936), S. Gorodetsky (1884-1967).

The work of the Acmeists was characterized by a rejection of moral quests, a reluctance to see the negative phenomena of reality, a tendency towards eclecticism, and complicated metaphors. The most talented representatives of the movement retreated from their postulates.

Complex social processes of the late XIX - early XX centuries. led to the emergence of new forms and methods of reflection in artistic culture. Striving for harmony and beauty of the world, artists saw the task of art as cultivating a sense of beauty in a person.

During this period, V. A. Serov and M. A. Vrubel said a new word in painting. They moved to the Art Nouveau style, which was largely predetermined by symbolism and fed on its ideas.

At the end of the 19th century, the style of Mannerism and Art Nouveau dominated in architecture.

Mannerism in a new understanding is a pseudo-Russian style. The architects A. A. Parland (the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood in St. Petersburg, built on the site of the assassination of Alexander II) experienced his influence; A. N. Pomerantsev Upper shopping arcades in Moscow, now GUM; Kazansky railway station in Moscow. The Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow was built in this style according to Vasnetsov’s sketches. F. O. Shekhtel worked in the Art Nouveau style (the building of the Moscow Art Theater and the Yaroslavl Station, the mansion and bank of the industrialist Ryabushinsky in Moscow).

In Russia, the Art Nouveau style was influenced by classicism. This combination was reflected in neoclassicism, prominent representatives whose architects were I.V. Zholtovsky and I.A. Fomin.

The importance of the culture of the second half of the 19th century is difficult to overestimate: finally, after many decades and even centuries of lag in the field of painting, Russia, on the eve of the revolution, caught up with, and in some areas surpassed, Europe. For the first time, Russia began to determine world fashion in world culture.

Complex political and historical events late 19th century determined the diversity of forms of cultural development. Based on the best traditions of the previous period, Russian culture acquired new trends that required understanding of moral and social problems. It was necessary to search for new methods and artistic techniques.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russia remained a country with a low literacy rate (38-39%, according to the 1913 census). The degree of literacy was unequal depending on the regions, men were more literate than women, urban residents were more educated than the peasantry. The education system included three levels: primary (parochial, public schools), secondary (gymnasiums, real schools), higher (universities, institutes).

The development of primary education began to occur on the initiative of the democratic part of society. A new type of school began to emerge - cultural and educational workers' courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses.

The growing need for specialists has led to the development of higher and technical education, the number of higher education institutions has increased educational institutions- by 1912 there were 16 universities operating. Private education became widespread (Shanyavsky University, 1908-1918), and 30 higher educational institutions for women were opened. In terms of the quantity of published literature, Russia has taken the leading place in the world. In 1913, 874 newspapers and 1,263 magazines were published. A network of scientific, special, commercial and educational libraries emerged. The largest publishers were A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow.

At the turn of the century, traditional and new fields of science developed. In physics I.E. Zhukovsky became the founder of hydro- and aerodynamics, K.E. Tsiolkovsky developed the theoretical foundations of aeronautics. Such outstanding scientists worked as physiologists I.P. Pavlov, I.M. Sechenov, I.I. Mechnikov, botanists K.A. Timiryazev, I.V. Michurin, physicist P.N. Lebedev, inventor of radio communications A.S. Popov, philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, V.S. Soloviev, P.A. Florensky, historians V.O. Klyuchevsky, P.N. Miliukov.

The realistic direction was dominant in Russian literature. Continuing the dramatic traditions of their predecessors, at the turn of the century they created outstanding writers: L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, A.I. Kuprin, A.M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov.

This period became the Silver Age of Russian poetry, which acquired new forms and developed in many directions (modernism, symbolism, futurism, aestheticism). A galaxy of talented poets reflected in their works the deep social crisis of Russian society (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Blok, A. Bely, N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, I Severyanin, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak, V. Mayakovsky).

The largest reformer of the Russian theater K.S. Stanislavsky together with V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Moscow Art Theater in 1898 and enriched the theater stage with innovative techniques. Their activities marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of stage realism. They also worked in a realistic style on the stage of the St. Petersburg Drama Theater, created in 1904 by V.F. Komisarzhevskaya. Musical traditions on the stage of the Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters were continued by representatives of the Russian vocal school: F.I. Shalyapin, L.V. Sobinov, N.V. Nezhdanov. This was the time when Russian composers (S.V. Rachmaninov, I.F. Stravinsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov) created outstanding works.

In the fine arts, talented artists (I.E. Repin, V.M. Surikov, V.M. Vasnetsov) continued to develop realistic traditions. The late “Itinerants” S.A. worked fruitfully. Korovin, N.A. Kasatkin, landscape painters A.K. Kuindzhi, V.D. Polenov, battle painter V.V. Vereshchagin.

Architects continued to create in the Art Nouveau style, focusing on Special attention functional purpose of the designed buildings (F.O. Shekhtel - Yaroslavsky railway station, A.V. Shchusev - Kazansky railway station, V.M. Vasnetsov - Tretyakov Gallery).

Education. In the context of the revolutionary events of 1905, the Ministry of Public Education introduced into the 2nd State Duma a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in Russian Empire"However, this issue was never resolved in pre-revolutionary Russia. At the turn of 19-20 in Russia the transition to universal incomplete secondary education of youth in the amount of 7-8 grades had just begun. IN Western Europe At the end of the 19th century, universal literacy of the population was ensured. Literacy in Russia was 40%, i.e. the majority of the population remained illiterate, especially the peasants.

The number of universities has remained virtually unchanged; in 1909, only 1 university appeared in Saratov. The number of students increased from 14 thousand to 35 thousand in 1907.

The spread of private educational institutions (Psycho-neurological Institute of V. Bekhterev, Free Higher School of P. Lesgaft. Prominent scientists I. Pavlov, M. Kovalevsky, V. Semevsky, E. Tarle taught there. Many of them worked for free. Pedagogical institutions were opened. Women's Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg 1903

Women's education expanded significantly. 30 higher educational institutions for women. In 1900, the Higher Women's Courses of V. Guerrier, closed during the reaction years of 1888, were reopened. in 1908, higher women's agricultural courses began to operate, led by D. Pryanishnikov. All of them were supported by private or public funds. The government was forced to recognize the right of women to higher education - the law of 1911. In 1912, the first All-Russian Congress on Women's Education was held, which, in particular, adopted a resolution on co-education in higher educational institutions.

Extracurricular education is also appearing. Except Sunday schools, work courses appear. The most famous were the Prechistensky working courses in Moscow in 1897 at the expense of V. Morozova, the owner of the Tver manufactory. Teachers: I. Sechenov, V. Volgin, V. Picheta.

People's universities and educational workers' societies arose. 1096 People's universities were created. In Moscow, the People's University was opened with the money of the liberal A. Shanyavsky. Shanyavsky University played a big role in the democratization of higher education. Anyone from the age of 16 could enroll. Training was carried out in the evenings in 2 departments - popular science (in the scope of the gymnasium) and academic. Those who completed the latter received a diploma of higher education. In 1913-1914 S. Yesenin studied at Shanyavsky University.

Book publishing. The main book publishing centers in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Russia ranks 3rd in the world after Germany and Japan. Among the magazines, diaries acquired particular importance: “Niva” by A. Marx, 1870. The best pedagogical journal was “Bulletin of Education.” In 1907, the bibliographic journal “Book Chronicle” was published in Russia, which took into account all published literature.

At the end of the 19th century, the largest book publishers in Russia began their activities in Russia - A. Suvorin, I. Sytin. Suvorinskaya’s “Cheap Library” has been published since 1980. Sytin released the series “Library for Self-Education”. Sytin became the largest monopolist in the publishing business. Through these books, millions of primers, textbooks, libraries for self-education, popular calendars, and children's books were distributed throughout Russia.

Zemstvos did a lot for the development of libraries. Of the 10 thousand libraries in 1904, 4.5 thousand were organized by zemstvos. Public or public libraries existed in the form of commercial, public libraries, and reading rooms.

The science. The Academy of Sciences with an extensive system of scientific institutes, universities with numerous scientific societies, and all-Russian congresses of scientists represented the centers of the country's scientific forces. Publications of popular science literature, periodicals (“Around the World”, “Nature”, “Science and Life”), public lectures by famous scientists contributed to the development of science and the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

At the beginning of the century, the aviation industry practically did not exist. Despite the fact that a Russian aircraft was designed at the end of the 19th century. The government preferred to buy foreign ones. Only in 1913 in St. Petersburg at the Russian-Baltic Plant were the first Russian-designed aircraft “Russian Knight” and “Ilya Muromets” created. Aviation successes are associated with the names of the designers: designer I. Sikorsky, pilots P. Nesterov and S. Utochkin. 1911 G. Kotelnikov created a backpack parachute.

In 1903, in the journal Scientific Review, K. Tsiolkovsky published an article “Exploration of world spaces using jet instruments,” in which he outlined the theory of rocket motion. Thus, in his subsequent works he laid the theoretical foundations of space flights and substantiated the possibility of using rockets for interplanetary flights. He is the founder of modern astronautics.

In physics, X-rays, radioactivity, the divisibility of the atom were discovered, theoretical synthesis was discovered, new sciences appeared regarding such concepts as space and time (the theory of relativity), new concepts of heredity that underlay genetics.

P. Lebedev, the founder of the Russian scientific school of physics, proved the existence of light pressure. B. Golitsyn is considered the founder of seismology as a science.

The works of V. Vernadsky laid the foundations of such sciences as geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. The Russian scientist physiologist I. Pavlov created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes. In 1904, Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of digestive physiology. In 1908, I. Mechnikov was awarded this highest award for his research into immunology and infectious diseases.

In the field of humanities worked economist, historian Tugan-Baranovsky, historian S. Platonov, V. Semevsky, literary critics S. Vengerov, A. Pypin, bibliographer N. Rubakin.

In the early 20th century, Marxism spread in Russia. Lenin. Russian religious philosophy – V. Solovyov, S. Bulkakov, P. Florensky.

Decadence the concept of worldview appeared as a reaction against materialism. Modernism- a new direction born in the 20th century, new in comparison with the realism of the previous century.

Literature. L Tolstoy published his 1899 last novel“Resurrection” is a protest against social evil and social injustice. Tolstoy did not support modernism. Developing symbolism. Bryusov, Balmont, Sologub, Merezhkovsky, A. Blok. The founders of Acmeism - from the Greek - blooming time, N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam (the cult of real earthly existence in contrast to the symbolists). Futurism (absolute freedom)B. Kamensiky, V. Mayakovsky, Severyanin, Aseev, Pasternak

A. Chekhov created his best works: “My Life”, “Lady with a Dog”, “House with a Mezzanine”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “The Seagull”. Gorky's creative path began. He published his first novel “Makar Chudra” in 1892 “Song of the Falcon”, “Petrel”.

Young writers came to literature: 1893, the first novel by I. Bunin “Tanka”, A. Kuprin “Olesya”. They are representatives of realism.

Proletarian poetry - social optimism and romantic pathos - became a new phenomenon. 1906 M. Gorky “Mother”. New peasant poets S. Yesenin, N. Klyuev, S. Klychkov).

Theater. 1898 The Art Theater opens in Moscow. At its origins were K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko. In 1898, the first performance of A. Tolstoy’s play “Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich” took place on the stage of the Hermitage. The true birth of the art theater occurred in December 1898 with the production of Chekhov's The Seagull. In 1902, a building was built at the expense of the Russian philanthropist S. Morozov Art Theater in Moscow (architect F. Shekhtel)

Cinema. In 90, cinema appeared in Russia, simultaneously with its invention in France by the Lumière brothers. The first newsreels were shown in May 1896, starting in St. Petersburg in the Aquarium pleasure garden, and a few days later in Moscow. The first Russian film entrepreneur A. Khanzhonkov began producing feature films in 1907-8, built a film factory and a number of cinemas, including “Khudozhestvenny” and “Moscow”. The first feature films were “The Queen of Spades” and “Father Sergius” (dir. Y. Protazanov).

Music. 1 906 in Moscow, with the assistance of S. Taneyev, a people's conservatory was opened. The “sign of the times” was the strengthening of the lyrical principle in music. N. Rimsky - Korsakov - the main keeper of the traditions of the “Mighty Handful” - wrote the opera “The Tsar’s Bride” in 1898, full of lyricism and drama.

Musical innovations are associated with the work of S. Rachmaninov and A. Scriabin. The centers of musical life were the Mariinsky and Bolshoi theaters. However, the main achievements of opera art are associated with the activities of private opera in Moscow - S. Mamontov, S. Zimin. F. Chaliapin's talent was revealed on the stage of Mamontov's private opera.

Russian seasons in Paris were organized by S. Diaghilev. Russian art has received worldwide recognition.

Painting. Traveling is gradually becoming a thing of the past. Modernism and impressionism are developing. New names appear: M. Vrubel (fantastic fairy-tale world, gravitating towards symbolism), K. Korovin (impressionism - “At the Balcony”), M. Nesterov (religious and mystical moods “Vision to the Youth Bartholomew”), V. Serov (poetry of the beautiful human personality – “Girl with Peaches”). Serov's portraits are famous - F. Chaliapin I. Morozov Nikolai II. Artists and composers of this time were characterized by an increased interest in Ancient Rus' (V. Vasnetsov, N. Roerich, I. Stravinsky).

In 1899, a broad cultural and aesthetic movement “World of Art” appeared. It opened Rokotov, Levitsky, Kiprensky, Venetsianov, F. Tolstoy to his contemporaries

Mail. The postal service department was established . 35 post districts. Post offices appear in capitals, and post offices headed by postmasters appear in provinces and districts. Newspapers and magazines are distributed through the mail. What's new is the appearance open letter– postcards 1871

Telegraph, Telephone. Experience in the construction of the telegraph is associated with P. Schilling and B. Jacobi. 1832 Schilling invented the telegraph. The first telegraph line between Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 50s and 19th centuries. 1881 telephone in Nizhny Novgorod. 1916 Payphones appeared in Moscow.

On the eve of the revolutionary events of 1917, Russia had the richest cultural heritage, world-class cultural values.

Culture of the late 19th century.

Peculiarities. The culture of this period reflected all the complexity and contradictions of the era. This is the time of the Russian Silver Age or Russian spiritual renaissance, the rise of spirituality. The mood of stability 80g is replaced by a state of mental tension, the expectation of a “great revolution” - L. Tolstoy. The revolution of 1905-7 had a huge impact. A special feature is the development of various forms of association of cultural figures, the idea of ​​cultural synthesis - “World of Art”, the magazine “Scales” (editor V. Bryusov), “Golden Fleece” (N. Ryabushinsky)

This time is the beginning of Religious and Philosophical meetings. The goal is to create open society people of religion and philosophy to discuss issues of church and culture. The period after the revolution gave rise to a new direction - the search for God D. Merezhkovsky, Vl Solovyov. Some authors (A. Lunacharsky, V. Bazarov) tried to combine socialism with religion. 1908 Lunacharsky published the book “Religion and Socialism” 1908. V. Plekhanov and V. Lenin criticized the search for God. An important problem was the problem of the relationship between the intelligentsia and the people.

The conservative nature of the political culture of Tsarist Russia

To understand the characteristics of Russian culture in the 19th and early 20th centuries. knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law of the Russian Empire is essential. As a result of Peter's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was legislated, which was especially evident in the “golden age” of Catherine II. Beginning of the 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander 1, who in practice pursued a line to strengthen the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new “spirit of the times,” primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds and on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, glorified by Russian poetry, starting with Pushkin and ending with Tsvetaeva. The establishment of ministries marked the further bureaucratization of management and improvement of the central apparatus of the Russian Empire. One of the elements of modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment State Council, whose function was to centralize legislative affairs and ensure uniformity of legal norms. Ministerial reform and education
The State Council completed the reorganization of central government bodies, which existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly entered the path of capitalist development. However, the political system of the Russian Empire was thoroughly permeated with serfdom. Under these conditions, the bureaucracy turned into a “weathervane”, trying to ensure the interests of the bourgeoisie and nobles; the same situation persisted later, in the era of imperialism. We can say that the political system of Russia was conservative in nature, and this was also reflected in the law. The latter is a mixed law, because it intertwined the norms of feudal and bourgeois law. In connection with the development of bourgeois relations in the 70s of the last century, the “Russian Civil Code” was adopted, copied from the Napoleonic Code, which was based on classical Roman law.
The political system and law express the peculiarities economic development Russia in the 19th century, when a new, capitalist mode of production was being formed in the depths of serfdom. The main area where the new method of production was formed earlier and more intensively was industry. Russia in the first half of the last century was characterized by widespread small industry, predominantly peasant industry. In the sphere of manufacturing industry, which produced consumer goods, small peasant crafts occupied a dominant position. The development of peasant industry transformed the economic appearance of the village and the very life of the peasant. In the fishing villages, the processes of social stratification of the peasantry and their separation from agriculture took place more intensely, and the conflict between phenomena of a capitalist nature and feudal relations became more acute. But this was only the case in the most economically developed central industrial region; in other areas, subsistence farming predominated. It was only after 1861 that an industrial revolution took place in Russia, but the emerging Russian bourgeoisie was dependent on tsarism and was characterized by political inertia and conservatism. All this left its mark on the development of Russian culture, gave it a contradictory character, but ultimately contributed to its high rise.
Indeed, serfdom, which kept the peasantry in darkness and downtroddenness, tsarist arbitrariness, suppressing any living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries hindered cultural progress. And yet, despite these unfavorable conditions and even despite them, Russia in the 19th century. made a truly giant leap in the development of culture and made an enormous contribution to world culture. This rise of Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-awareness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of the Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

Golden age of Russian culture. Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on Russian culture. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia. We should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Rus' on the culture of the 19th century: the assimilation of old traditions made it possible to sprout new shoots of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other spheres of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more controversial - from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok - bears an indelible stamp testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave an image of Russian folk holiness in the story “Living Relics”. Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of whose creativity go back to Orthodox icon painting. Ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninov, became striking phenomena in the history of musical culture.

Russian culture accepted the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. For example, Russian religious thought left a significant mark on the history of European peoples. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor that gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture was the “thunderstorm of the twelfth year.” The rise of patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-awareness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture. V. Belinsky wrote: “The year 1812, having shocked all of Russia, aroused the people’s consciousness and people’s pride.” Cultural and historical process in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. has its own characteristics. There is a noticeable acceleration in its pace, due to the above-mentioned factors. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a differentiation (or specialization) of various spheres of cultural activity (especially in science), and on the other, a complication of the cultural process itself, i.e. greater “contact” and mutual influence of different areas of culture: philosophy and literature, literature, painting and music, etc. It is also necessary to note the strengthening of the processes of diffuse interaction between the components of Russian national culture - the official (“high”, professional) culture, sponsored by the state (the church is losing spiritual power), and the culture of the masses (“folklore” layer), which originates in the depths of the East Slavic tribal unions, is formed in Ancient Rus' and continues its full-blooded existence throughout Russian history. In the depths of the official state culture there is a noticeable layer of “elite” culture, serving the ruling class (the aristocracy and the royal court) and having a special receptivity to foreign innovations. Suffice it to recall the romantic painting of O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin, K. Bryullov, A. Ivanov and other major artists of the XIX V.

Since the 17th century. a “third culture” is taking shape and developing, amateur and handicraft, on the one hand, based on folklore traditions, and on the other, gravitating towards forms official culture. In the interaction of these three layers of culture, often conflicting, the prevailing tendency is towards a unified national culture based on the rapprochement of official art and folklore, inspired by the ideas of nationality and nationality. These aesthetic principles were established in the aesthetics of the Enlightenment (P. Plavilshchikov, N. Lvov, A. Radishchev), and were especially important in the era of Decembrism in the first quarter of the 19th century. (K. Ryleev, A. Pushkin) and acquired fundamental importance in the creativity and aesthetics of the realistic type in the middle of the last century.
The intelligentsia, initially made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and nobles, is increasingly participating in the formation of Russian national culture. In the first half of the 18th century. common intellectuals appeared, and in the second half of this century a special social group emerged - the serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. The leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the 19th century. - commoners. People from peasant backgrounds joined the ranks of the intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom). In general, the raznochintsy included educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucrats, philistines, merchants and peasants. This explains such an important feature of the culture of Russia in the 19th century as the beginning of the process of its democratization. It manifests itself in the fact that not only representatives of the privileged classes are gradually becoming cultural figures, although they continue to occupy a leading position. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from unprivileged classes, in particular from the serf peasantry, but mainly from among commoners, is increasing.

In the 19th century Literature became the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated primarily by its close connection with progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Response" to this message of the Decembrist Odoevsky, Ryleev's satire "To the Temporary Worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "On the Death of a Poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in essence, , political pamphlets, militant, revolutionary appeals that inspired progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive writers in Russia made Russian literature of that time one of the active social forces.
Even against the background of all the richest world classics, Russian literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. One could say that it is like the Milky Way, clearly visible in a star-strewn sky, if some of the writers who made its fame did not look more like dazzling luminaries or independent “universes.” The names alone of A, Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy immediately evoke ideas about enormous art worlds, a multitude of ideas and images that are refracted in their own way in the minds of more and more generations of readers. The impressions produced by this “golden age” of Russian literature were perfectly expressed by T. Mann, speaking of its “extraordinary internal unity and integrity,” “the close cohesion of its ranks, the continuity of its traditions.” We can say that Pushkin's poetry and Tolstoy's prose are a miracle; It is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana was the intellectual capital of the world in the last century.
A. Pushkin was the founder of Russian realism, his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin”, which V. Belinsky called the encyclopedia of Russian life, was the highest expression of realism in the work of the great poet. Outstanding examples of realistic literature are the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the story “ Captain's daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, etc. Pushkin’s global significance is associated with the awareness of the universal significance of the tradition he created. He paved the way for the literature of M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky and A. Chekhov, which rightfully became not only a fact of Russian culture, but also the most important moment in the spiritual development of mankind.

Pushkin's traditions were continued by his younger contemporary and successor M. Lermontov. The novel “A Hero of Our Time,” which is in many ways consonant with Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov’s realism. The work of M. Lermontov was the highest point in the development of Russian poetry of the post-Pushkin period and opened new paths in the evolution of Russian prose. His main aesthetic reference point is the work of Byron and Pushkin during the period of “southern poems” (Pushkin’s romanticism). Russian “Byronism” (this romantic individualism) is characterized by the cult of titanic passions and extreme situations, lyrical expression combined with philosophical self-absorption. Therefore, Lermontov’s attraction to ballads, romances, and lyric epic poems, in which love has a special place, is understandable. Lermontov's method had a strong influence on subsequent literature psychological analysis, “dialectics of feelings.”

Gogol’s work also developed in the direction from pre-romantic and romantic forms to realism, which turned out to be a decisive factor in the subsequent development of Russian literature. In his “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” the concept of Little Russia - this Slavic ancient Rome - as an entire continent on the map of the universe, with Dikanka as its original center, as the focus of both national spiritual specificity and national destiny, is artistically realized. At the same time, Gogol is the founder of the “natural school” (the school of critical realism); It is no coincidence that N. Chernyshevsky called the 30s - 40s of the last century the Gogol period of Russian literature. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat”,” Dostoevsky figuratively remarked, characterizing Gogol’s influence on the development of Russian literature. At the beginning of the 20th century. Gogol receives worldwide recognition and from that moment on becomes an active and ever-increasing figure in the world artistic process, and the deep philosophical potential of his work is gradually realized.
The work of the brilliant L. Tolstoy deserves special attention, which marked a new stage in the development of Russian and world realism and built a bridge between the traditions of the classical novel of the 19th century. and literature of the 20th century. The novelty and power of Tolstoy's realism are directly related to the democratic roots of his art, his worldview and his moral quest; Tolstoy's realism is characterized by special truthfulness, frankness of tone, directness and, as a result, crushing force and sharpness in exposing social contradictions. A special phenomenon in Russian and world literature is the novel “War and Peace”; in this unique phenomenon of art, Tolstoy combined the form psychological novel with the scope and multi-figuration of an epic fresco. More than a hundred years have passed since the first part of the novel appeared in print; many generations of readers have changed during this time. And invariably “War and Peace” is read by people of all ages - from young men to old people. The modern writer Yu. Nagibin called this novel an eternal companion of humanity, for “War and Peace,” dedicated to one of the most disastrous wars of the 19th century, states moral idea the triumph of life over death, peace over war, which acquired enormous significance at the end of the 20th century.

Moral quests of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky

The truly titanic nature of moral quests is also striking for another great Russian writer - Dostoevsky, who, unlike Tolstoy, does not give an analysis of epic proportions. He does not describe what is happening, he forces us to “go underground” in order to see what is really happening, he forces us to see ourselves in ourselves. Thanks to the amazing ability to penetrate into the most human soul Dostoevsky was one of the first, if not the very first, to describe modern nihilism. His characterization of this state of mind is indelible, and it still fascinates the reader with its depth and inexplicable precision. Ancient nihilism was associated with skepticism and epicureanism; its ideal was noble serenity, the achievement of peace of mind in the face of the vicissitudes of fortune. The nihilism of Ancient India, which made such a deep impression on Alexander the Great and his entourage, was philosophically somewhat similar to the position of the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho of Elis and resulted in philosophical contemplation of emptiness. For Nagarjuna and his followers, nihilism was the threshold of religion. However, modern nihilism, although also based on intellectual conviction, leads neither to philosophical dispassion nor to the blessed state of equanimity. It is rather an inability to create and affirm, a spiritual flaw, rather than a philosophy. Many troubles in our lives come from the fact that the “underground man” has replaced the real person.
Dostoevsky sought deliverance from nihilism not in suicide or denial, but in affirmation and joy. The answer to the nihilism that plagues the intellectual is the invigorating “naivety” of Dmitry Karamazov, the overflowing joy of Alyosha, the heroes of the novel “The Brothers Karamazov”. In innocence ordinary people- a refutation of nihilism. Dostoevsky's world is a world of men, women and children, both ordinary and extraordinary. Some are overwhelmed by worries, others by voluptuousness, some are poor and cheerful, others are rich and sad. This is a world of saints and villains, idiots and geniuses, pious women and angelic children tormented by their fathers. This is a world of criminals and respectable citizens, but the gates of heaven are open to everyone: they can be saved or doom themselves to eternal damnation. In Dostoevsky’s notebooks there is the most powerful thought, on which everything now rests, from which everything comes: “being exists only when it is threatened with non-existence. Being only begins to be when it is threatened with non-existence.” The world is in danger of destruction, the world can - must! - to be saved by beauty, the beauty of spiritual and moral achievement - this is how Dostoevsky is read today, this is how the very reality of our time forces us to read him.

The flourishing of musical culture: Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky and others.

In the 19th century, along with the amazing development of literature, there were also the brightest rises in the musical culture of Russia, and music and literature interacted, which enriched certain artistic images. If, for example, Pushkin in his poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” gave an organic solution to the idea of ​​national patriotism, finding appropriate national forms for its implementation, then M. Glinka discovered new, potential options in Pushkin’s magical fairy-tale heroic plot and modernized it, as it were offering another romantic version of the epic, with its characteristic “universal” scale and “reflective” heroes. In his poem, Pushkin, as is known, reduced the scale of the classical epic, sometimes parodying its style: “I am not Omer... He can sing alone / The dinners of the Greek squads”; Glinka, on the other hand, took a different path - with the help of colossal pictorial “swelling”, his opera grows from the inside into a multinational musical epic. Its heroes from patriarchal Rus' find themselves in the world of the East, their destinies are intertwined with the magic of the northern sage Finn. Here Pushkin's plot is reinterpreted into the plot of a drama, Glinka's opera is an excellent example of the embodiment of that harmony of resultant forces, which is recorded in the minds of musicians as the “Ruslanov” principle, i.e. romantic beginning.
The work of Gogol, which is inextricably linked with the problem of nationality, had a significant influence on the development of the musical culture of Russia in the last century. Gogol’s stories formed the basis of the operas “May Night” and “The Night Before Christmas” by N. Rimsky-Korsakov, “Sorochinskaya Fair” by M. Mussorgsky, “Blacksmith Vakula” (“Cherevichki”) by P. Tchaikovsky, etc. Rimsky-Korsakov created a whole “fairy-tale” world of operas: from “May Night” and “The Snow Maiden” to “Sadko”, for which (the common thing is a certain ideal world in its harmony. The plot of “Sadko” is built on various versions of the Novgorod epic - tales of the wonderful enrichment of the guslar, his wanderings and adventures. Rimsky-Korsakov defines “The Snow Maiden” as an opera-fairy tale, calling it “a picture from the Beginningless and Endless Chronicle of the Berendey kingdom.”
In operas of this kind, Rimsky-Korsakov uses mythological and philosophical symbolism. If “The Snow Maiden” is associated with the cult of Yarila (the sun), then “Mlada” presents a whole pantheon of ancient Slavic deities. Here ritual and folk ritual scenes associated with the cult of Radegast (Perun) and Kupala unfold, the magical forces of good and evil are fighting, and the hero is subjected to “temptations” due to the machinations of Morena and Chernobog. The content of Rimsky-Korsakov’s aesthetic ideal, which underlies his musical creativity, includes the category of beauty in art as an absolute value. The images of the highly poetic world of his operas very clearly show that art is an effective force, that it conquers and transforms a person, that it carries life and joy. Rimsky-Korsakov combined a similar function of art with an understanding of it as an effective means of moral improvement of a person. This cult of art in some way goes back to the romantic affirmation of Man the Creator, who opposes the “mechanical”, alienating tendencies of the past (and present) century. Rimsky-Korsakov’s music elevates the human in man, it is designed to save him from the “terrible seduction” of the bourgeois age, and thereby it acquires a great civic role and benefits society.
The flourishing of Russian musical culture was facilitated by the work of P. Tchaikovsky, who wrote many beautiful works and introduced new things into this area. Thus, his opera “Eugene Onegin” was of an experimental nature, which he carefully called not an opera, but “lyrical scenes”. The innovative essence of the opera was that it reflected the trends of new advanced literature. What is characteristic of Tchaikovsky’s “laboratory” of searches is that he uses traditional forms in the opera, introducing the necessary “dose” of entertainment into the musical performance. In his quest to create an "intimate" but powerful drama, Tchaikovsky wanted to achieve on stage the illusion of everyday life with its everyday conversations. He abandoned the epic tone of Pushkin's narrative and took the novel away from satire and irony into a lyrical sound. That is why the lyrics of internal monologue and internal action, the movement of emotional states and tension came to the fore in the opera.
It is significant that Tchaikovsky was helped to transfer Pushkin’s images into a new psychological environment by the works of Turgenev and Ostrovsky. Thanks to this, he established a new, musical realistic drama, the conflict of which was determined in the clash of ideals with reality, poetic dreams with bourgeois life, beauty and poetry with the rough everyday prose of life in the 70s of the last century. It is not surprising that the dramaturgy of Tchaikovsky’s opera largely prepared Chekhov’s theater, which is characterized, first of all, by the ability to convey inner life actors. It is quite clear that the best director’s production of “Eugene Onegin” was carried out by Stanislavsky, already an excellent expert on Chekhov’s theater.
In general, it should be noted that at the turn of the century, in the works of composers, there was a certain revision of musical traditions, a departure from social issues and an increase in interest in the inner world of man, in philosophical and ethical problems. The “sign” of the times was the strengthening of the lyrical principle in musical culture.
N. Rimsky-Korsakov, who then acted as the main custodian of the creative ideas of the famous “ mighty bunch"(it included M. Balakirev, M. Mussorgsky, P. Cui, A. Borodin, N. Rimsky-Korsakov), created the opera "The Tsar's Bride" full of lyricism. New features of Russian music of the early 20th century. found their greatest expression in the works of S. Rachmaninov and A. Scriabin. Their work reflected the ideological atmosphere of the pre-revolutionary era; their music expressed romantic pathos, a call to struggle, and the desire to rise above the “ordinariness of life.”

Achievements of Russian science in the 19th and 20th centuries

In the XIX - early XX centuries. Russian science has achieved significant success: in mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, agronomy, biology, astronomy, geography, and in the field of humanitarian research. This is evidenced by even a simple listing of the names of brilliant and outstanding scientists who have made significant contributions to domestic and world science: S.M. Soloviev, T.N. Granovsky, I.I. Sreznevsky, F.I. Buslaev, N.I. Pirogov, I.I. Mechnikov, I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, P.L. Chebyshev, M.V. Ostrogradsky, N.I. Lobachevsky, N.N. Zinin, A.M. Butlerov, D.I. Mendeleev, E.Kh. Lenz, B.S. Jacobi, V.V. Petrov, K.M. Baer, ​​V.V. Dokuchaev, K.A. Timiryazev, V.I. Vernadsky and others. As an example, consider the work of V.I. Vernadsky is a genius of Russian science, the founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiology. His doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere today is quickly entering various sections of natural science, especially physical geography, landscape geochemistry, geology of oil and gas, ore deposits, hydrogeology, soil science, biological sciences and medicine. The history of science knows many outstanding researchers of certain areas of natural science, but much more rare were scientists who, with their thoughts, embraced all the knowledge about the nature of their era and tried to synthesize it. This was the case in the second half of the 15th century. beginning of the 16th century Leonardo da Vinci, in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov and his French contemporary J.-L. Buffon, at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th century. - Alexander Humboldt. Our greatest natural scientist V.I. Vernadsky, in terms of his structure of thoughts and breadth of coverage of natural phenomena, stands on a par with these luminaries of scientific thought, however, he worked in an era of immeasurably increased volume of information in natural science, fundamentally new techniques and research methodology.
IN AND. Vernadsky was an exceptionally widely erudite scientist, he was fluent in many languages, followed all the world's scientific literature, and was in personal contact and correspondence with the most prominent scientists of his time. This allowed him to always be at the forefront of scientific knowledge, and to look far ahead in his conclusions and generalizations. Back in 1910, in a note “On the need to study radioactive minerals of the Russian Empire,” he predicted the inevitability of the practical use of atomic energy, colossal in its power. Recently, in an obvious connection with the beginning of fundamental changes in the relationship between man and nature, interest in his scientific work has begun to rapidly increase in our country and abroad. Many ideas of V.I. Vernadsky's works are beginning to be properly appreciated only now.
In the history of Russian culture, the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. received the name of the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, which begins with the “World of Art” and ends with Acmeism. “World of Art” is an organization that emerged in 1898 and united masters of the highest artistic culture, the artistic elite of Russia at that time. Almost all famous artists participated in this association - A. Benois, K. Somov, L. Bakst, E. Lanceray, A. Golovin, M. Dobuzhinsky, M. Vrubel, V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Levitan , M. Nesterov, N. Roerich, B. Kustodiev, K. Petrov-Vodkin, F. Malyavin, M. Larionov, N. Goncharova, etc. The personality of S. Diaghilev, philanthropist and organizer, was of great importance for the formation of the “World of Arts” exhibitions, and subsequently - impresario of tours of Russian ballet and opera abroad, the so-called “Russian Seasons”.
Thanks to Diaghilev's activities, Russian art receives wide international recognition. The “Russian Seasons” organized by him in Paris are among the landmark events in the history of Russian music, painting, opera and ballet. In 1906, the Parisians were presented with the exhibition “Two Centuries of Russian Painting and Sculpture,” which was then exhibited in Berlin and Venice. This was the first act of pan-European recognition of the “World of Art”, as well as the discovery of Russian painting of the 18th - early 20th centuries. in general for Western criticism and a real triumph of Russian art. Next year Paris could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to
Scriabin. In 1906, our brilliant singer F. Chaliapin performed here with exceptional success, performing the role of Tsar Boris in Mussorgsky’s opera “Boris Godunov”. Finally, in 1909, the “Russian Seasons” of ballet began in Paris, which lasted for several years (until 1912).

The “Russian Seasons” is associated with the flourishing of creativity of many figures in the field of music, painting and dance. One of the greatest innovators of Russian ballet at the beginning of the 20th century. There was M. Fokin, who affirmed dramaturgy as the ideological basis of a ballet performance and sought, through the “commonwealth of dance, music and painting,” to create a psychologically meaningful and truthful image. In many ways, Fokine’s views are close to the aesthetics of Soviet ballet. The choreographic sketch “The Dying Swan” to the music of the French composer Saint-Saëns, created by him for Anna Pavlova, captured in the drawing by V. Serov, became a symbol of Russian classical ballet.
Under the editorship of Diaghilev, from 1899 to 1904, the magazine “World of Art” was published, which consisted of two departments: artistic and literary. In the last department, first works of a religious and philosophical nature were published, edited by D. Merezhkovsky and Z. Gippius, and then works on the theory of symbolist aesthetics, led by A. Bely and V. Bryusov. In the editorial articles of the first issues of the magazine, the main provisions of the “miriskusniks” about the autonomy of art were clearly formulated, that the problems of modern art and culture in general are exclusively problems of artistic form and that the main task of art is to educate the aesthetic tastes of Russian society, primarily through acquaintance with works of world art. We must give them their due: thanks to the “World of Art” students, English and German art was truly appreciated in a new way, and most importantly, Russian painting of the 18th century became a discovery for many. and architecture of St. Petersburg classicism. We can say that the “Silver Age” of Russian culture is a century of high-ranking culture and virtuosity, a culture of recollection of previous Russian culture, a culture of quotation. Russian culture of this time is a synthesis of the old noble and common cultures. A significant contribution of the World of Art is the organization of a grandiose historical exhibition of Russian painting from icon painting to modern times abroad.
Next to the “World of Art”, the most prominent movement at the turn of the century was symbolism - a multifaceted phenomenon that did not fit into the framework of “pure” doctrine. The cornerstone of the direction is a symbol that replaces an image and unites the Platonic kingdom of ideas with the world of the artist’s inner experience. Among the most prominent Western representatives of symbolism or closely associated with it are Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Verlaine, Verhaerne, Maeterlinck, Rilke... Russian symbolists are A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sollogub, I. Annensky, K. Balmont and others - relied on philosophical ideas from Kant to Schopenhauer, from Nietzsche to Vl. Solovyov and revered Tyutchev’s line “a thought expressed is a lie” as their favorite aphorism. Russian symbolists believed that “ideal impulses of the spirit” would not only lift them above the veils of everyday life and expose the transcendental essence of existence, but would also crush “extreme materialism,” equivalent to “titanic philistinism.” Symbolist poets were united common features worldview and poetic language. Along with the demands of “pure”, “free” art, the Symbolists emphasized individualism, reaching the point of narcissism, and glorified the mysterious world; The theme of “spontaneous genius”, close in spirit to Nietzsche’s “superman”, is close to them. “And I want, but I am not able to love people. “I am a stranger among them,” said Merezhkovsky. “I need something that is not in the world,” Gippius echoed him. “The day of the end of the Universe will come. And only the world of dreams is eternal,” said Bryusov.
Symbolism expanded and enriched the poetic possibilities of verse, which was caused by the desire of poets to convey the unusualness of their worldview “with just sounds, just images, just rhymes” (Bryusov). The contribution of symbolist poetry to the development of Russian versification is indisputable. K. Balmont, with his characteristic manner of “surprising” the reader, still had reason to write:
I am the sophistication of Russian slow speech, Before me are other poets - forerunners, I first discovered in this speech the deviations, Recited, angry, gentle ringings.

Beauty was considered by the symbolists as the key to the secrets of nature, the idea of ​​goodness and the entire universe, providing the opportunity to penetrate into the realm of the beyond, as a sign of otherness that can be deciphered in art. Hence the idea of ​​the artist as a demiurge, creator and ruler. Poetry was assigned the role of religion, joining which allows one to see with “invisible eyes” the irrational world, metaphysically appearing as “obvious beauty.” By the end of the tenth years of the XX century. Symbolism internally exhausted itself as a holistic movement, leaving a deep mark in various spheres of Russian culture.
The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. is the Russian philosophical Renaissance, the “golden age” of Russian philosophy. It is significant to note that the philosophical thought of the Silver Age of Russian culture, which is a golden nugget, itself came into being as a successor
and continuer of the traditions of Russian classical literature. According to R.A. Galtseva, “... in Russian culture there is something like a literary and philosophical relay race, and even more broadly, a relay race of art and philosophy, from the sphere of artistic contemplation the accumulated power is transferred to the field of philosophical comprehension and vice versa.” This is exactly how the relationship developed between Russian classics and the philosophical revival of the end of the century, which is represented by the names of Vl. Solovyova, V. Rozanova, S. Bulgakova, N. Berdyaeva, L. Shestova, G. Fedotova, S. Frank and others.

Born as a result of the collision of traditional culture with the Western world, when, according to the well-known formula of A. Herzen, “Russia responded to Peter’s call to be civilized with the phenomenon of Pushkin,” Russian literature, having absorbed and in its own way melted the fruits of secularized European civilization, entered into its classic "golden age". Then, in response to the new, nihilistic spirit of the times, relying on the spiritual strength of “holy Russian literature” (T. Mann), a philosophy rises at the end of the century, which sums up the development of the spirit of the “golden age” of the classics. It turns out that it is not Russian literature of the “Silver Age” that is the main heir of classical literature - for this it is morally ambiguous, subject to Dionysian temptations (temptations of sensuality). The successor of Russian literature turns out to be philosophical thought; it inherits the spiritual legacy of the “golden age” of the classics and therefore itself experiences the “golden age”.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in the pre-revolutionary years, cultural, literary, thinking Russia was completely ready for war and revolution. During this period, everything was mixed up: apathy, despondency, decadence - and the expectation of new disasters. The bearers of Russian culture of the “Silver Age”, who criticized bourgeois civilization and advocated for the democratic development of mankind (N. Berdyaev, Vl. Solovyov, etc.), lived in a huge country as if on a desert island. Russia did not know literacy - the entire world culture was concentrated among the intelligentsia: they quoted the Greeks by heart, were fond of French symbolists, considered Scandinavian literature theirs, knew philosophy and theology, poetry and the history of the whole world. And in this sense, the Russian intelligentsia was the custodian of the cultural museum of humanity, and Russia was the Rome of decline, the Russian intelligentsia did not live, but contemplated all the most refined things that happened in life, it was not afraid of any words, it was cynical and unchaste in the realm of spirit, in life is sluggish and inactive. IN in a certain sense The Russian intelligentsia made a revolution in the minds of people before revolutions in society - so deeply, mercilessly and disastrously the soil of the old tradition was dug up, such bold projects for the future were outlined. And the revolution broke out, having an ambiguous impact on the wonderful Russian culture.

Literature:
Voloshin M. Faces of creativity. L., 1988.
Ilyina T.V. History of art. Russian and Soviet art. M., 1989.
Zezina M.Ts., KoshmanL-V., Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. M., 1990.
History of aesthetic thought. In 6 vols. M., 1987. T. 4.
Pavlenko N.I., Kobrin V.B., Fedorov V.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. - M., 1989.
Pushkin in Russian philosophical criticism. M., 1990.
Sternin G.Yu. Artistic life of Russia in the 1900s - 1910s. M., 1988.
Fedotov G.P. Fates and sins of Russia. In 2 vols. M. 1991.

• Introductory lesson for free;
• A large number of experienced teachers (native and Russian-speaking);
• Courses are NOT for a specific period (month, six months, year), but for a specific number of lessons (5, 10, 20, 50);
• More than 10,000 satisfied customers.
• The cost of one lesson with a Russian-speaking teacher is from 600 rubles, with a native speaker - from 1500 rubles

“End of the century” - “fin de siècle” - a special state of the world and man at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Changing archetypes of time, space, man's place in the world... The birth of a new century was perceived by many as an exceptional phenomenon, marking the end of a historical cycle and the beginning of a completely new era.

The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. became an extremely fruitful period in the development of national culture. The spiritual life of society, reflecting the rapid changes that occurred in the appearance of the country at the turn of two centuries, the turbulent political history of Russia in this era, was distinguished by exceptional richness and diversity. “In Russia at the beginning of the century there was a real cultural renaissance,” wrote N.A. Berdyaev. “Only those who lived at that time know what a creative upsurge we experienced, what a breath of spirit swept through Russian souls.” The creativity of Russian scientists, literary and artistic figures has made a huge contribution to the treasury of world civilization. , Three directions of intellectual and artistic creativity of that time: religious philosophy, symbolism and avant-garde were the main pillars of the culture of the Silver Age.silver Age Russian culture turned out to be surprisingly short. It lasted less than a quarter of a century: 1900 - 22. The starting date coincides with the year of death of the Russian religious philosopher and poet V.S. Solovyov, and the final one - with the year of expulsion from Soviet Russia of a large group of philosophers and thinkers. The expression and name “Silver Age” were invented by the representatives of the Silver Age themselves. In A. Akhmatova it is present in the famous lines: “And the silver month cooled brightly over the silver age...”.

A special phenomenon of this period was the appearance of a large number artistic associations, which arose around each exhibition, grew out of circles, grouped around literary, artistic, public periodicals, and patrons of the arts.

The largest associations of this period at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries were the “World of Art”, “Union of Russian Artists”, “Blue Rose” and “Jack of Diamonds”. SYNTHESIS OF ARTS - an organic combination of different arts or types of art into an artistic whole, which aesthetically organizes the material and spiritual environment of human existence.

Literature. Literary development in Russia was complex, contradictory and stormy. Many literary trends were born and developed. The power of the literature of critical realism in the person of L.N. did not dry out. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov. In the works of these writers, social protest intensifies (“After the Ball”, Hadji Murat”, “Resurrection” by L.N. Tolstoy), the expectation of a cleansing storm (“The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov).

The traditions of critical realism continued to be preserved and developed in creativity major writer I.A. Bunin (1870-1953). Most significant works of this period - the stories “Village” (1910) and “Sukhodol” (1911).

The birth and development of proletarian literature takes place, which will later be called literature socialist realism. This is primarily due to creative activity M. Gorky. His “Town of Okurov”, “The Life of Matvey Kozhemyakin”, the chain of stories “Across Rus'” carried a broad truth of life.

Symbolism. Russian symbolism was closely connected with social upheavals and ideological quests of the pre-revolutionary decades. Russian symbolism has survived three waves. Performances 80-90 N. Minsky, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gipius reflected the decadent tendencies of the times of crisis of liberal and populist ideas. The symbolists sang of the “pure,” the mysterious world of the unreal; the theme of “spontaneous genius” was close to them. Inner world personality was an indicator of the general tragic state of the world, including “ scary world” Russian reality, doomed to death; and at the same time a foreboding of an imminent renewal.

The opponents of the Symbolists were acmeists(from the Greek “acme” - the highest degree of something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the symbolists, proclaimed the intrinsic value of real life, and called for returning words to their original meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. The main criterion for assessing creativity for acmeists (N. S. Gumilev, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam) was impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of the artistic word.

Modernism(avant-gardeism) in Russian poetry was represented by the work of the futurists. In Russia, futurism existed as a movement from approximately 1910 to 1915.

The fate of Russian futurism is similar to the fate of symbolism. But there were also peculiarities. If for the symbolists one of the central moments of aesthetics was music (composers Taneyev and Rachmaninov, Prokofiev and Stravinsky, Gliere and Mayakovsky created numerous romances based on the poems of Blok, Bryusov, Sologub, Balmont), then for the futurists it was line and light. The poetry of Russian futurism was closely connected with avant-garde art. It is no coincidence that almost all futurist poets are known as good artists - V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, E. Guro, V. Kamensky, A. Kruchenykh.. At the same time, many avant-garde artists wrote poetry and prose, participated in futurist publications as writers. Painting greatly enriched futurism. K. Malevich, V. Kandinsky, N. Goncharova and M. Larionov almost created what the futurists were striving for.

Theater. The theater in these years was a public platform where the most pressing issues of our time were raised, and at the same time a creative laboratory that opened the door wide to experimentation and creative quests. Major artists turned to the theater, striving for synthesis different types creativity. Works of outstanding theater directors. (The Moscow Art Theater, led by Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko, the founders of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the super-tasks of acting transformation). V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical convention, generalization, and the use of elements of folk farce and mask theater. E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

Movie. The development of Russian cinema was more difficult because Russia did not have its own production of devices; they used imported ones, mainly from France. Booth booths were replaced by stationary cinemas. Cinema was part of everyday life. The cinema was popular with everyone; in the auditorium one could see students and gendarmes, officers and female students, intellectuals and workers, clerks, traders, ladies of the world, milliners, officials, etc.

Sculpture The paths of development of Russian sculpture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were largely determined by its connections with the art of the Wanderers. This is precisely what explains its democracy and content. Sculptors actively participate in the search for something new, modern hero. Materials are becoming more diverse: not only marble and bronze are used, as before, but also stone, wood, majolica, even clay. Attempts are being made to introduce color into sculpture. At this time, a brilliant galaxy of sculptors was working - P.P. Trubetskoy, A.S. Golubkina, S.T. Konenkov, A.T. Matveev.

Architecture in Russia, under the conditions of the monopolistic development of capitalism, it became a concentration of acute contradictions, which led to the spontaneous development of cities, which damaged urban planning and transformed big cities into monsters of civilization. Tall buildings turned courtyards in poorly lit and ventilated wells. At the same time, industrial architectural structures appeared - factories, factories, train stations, arcades, banks, cinemas. Against a retrospective-electric background, new trends emerged - Art Nouveau and Neoclassicism. The first manifestations of Art Nouveau date back to the last decade of the 19th century, neoclassicism was formed in the 1900s. Art Nouveau in Russia is not fundamentally different from the West. However, there was a clear tendency to mix modernity with historical styles: Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, as well as ancient Russian architectural forms (Yaroslavsky Station in Moscow). Variations of Scandinavian Art Nouveau were common in St. Petersburg. In Moscow, the Art Nouveau architect Fyodor Osipovich Shekhtel (1859-1926), he built the Moscow Art Theater building and the Ryabushinsky mansion (1900-1902) - works most typical of pure Art Nouveau.

Music The late 19th and early 20th centuries (before 1917) were a period no less rich, but much more complex. It is not separated from the previous one by any sharp turning point: at this time M.A. Balakirev and Ts.A. Cui continue to create; the best, peak works of Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov date back to the 90s of the 19th century. and the first decade of the 20th century. They are being replaced by heirs and continuers of traditions: S. Tanev, A. Glazunov, S. Rachmaninov. New times and new tastes are felt in their work. There have also been changes in genre priorities. Thus, opera, which occupied the main place in Russian music for more than 100 years, faded into the background. And the role of ballet, on the contrary, has grown. The work of P.I. Tchaikovsky - the creation of beautiful ballets - was continued by Alexander Glazunov (1865-1936), the author of the wonderful “Raymonda” (1897), “The Young Peasant Lady” (1898).

Symphonic and chamber genres have received widespread development. Glazunov created eight symphonies and the symphonic poem “Stepan Razin” (1885)1. Sergei Ivanovich Taneyev (1856-1915) composed symphonies, piano trios and quintets. And Rachmaninov's piano concertos (like Tchaikovsky's concertos and Glazunov's violin concerto) are among the pinnacles of world art.