The emergence and course of emotions is closely related to the activity of the modulating systems of the brain, and decisive role The limbic system plays.

Limbic system– a complex of functionally interconnected phylogenetically ancient deep structures of the brain involved in the regulation of vegetative-visceral functions and behavioral reactions of the body. The term "limbic system" was introduced in 1952 by Mac Lean. However, even earlier, in 1937, Papetz suggested the existence of an “anatomical” emotional ring. It included: hippocampus - fornix - mammillary bodies - anterior nucleus of the thalamus - cingulate gyrus - hippocampus. Papetz believed that any afferentation entering the thalamus is divided into three streams: movements, thoughts and feelings. The circulation of excitation in the Papets circle created physiological basis emotional experiences.

The Papets circle formed the basis of the limbic system. In its main parts it is similar in all mammals. The limbic system, in addition to the Papez ring, usually includes: some nuclei of the hypothalamus, the amygdala, or amygdala (a cellular cluster the size of a nut), the olfactory bulb, tract and tubercle, nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus and the reticular formation of the midbrain. Together, these morphological structures form a single hypothalamic-limbic-reticular system. The central part of the limbic system is the hippocampus. In addition, there is a point of view that the anterior frontal region is a neocortical extension of the limbic system.

Nerve signals coming from all senses, traveling along the neural pathways of the brain stem to the cortex, pass through one or more limbic structures– amygdala, hippocampus or part of the hypothalamus. Signals emanating from the cortex also pass through these structures. Different parts of the limbic system are differently responsible for the formation of emotions. Their occurrence depends largely on the activity of the amygdala complex and the cingulate gyrus. However, the limbic system takes part in the launch of predominantly those emotional reactions that have already been tested during life experience.

There is compelling evidence that a number of fundamental human emotions have an evolutionary basis. These emotions turn out to be hereditarily fixed in the limbic system.

Reticular formation. The reticular formation of the brain stem plays an important role in providing emotions. As is known, fibers from neurons of the reticular formation go to various areas of the cerebral cortex. Most of these neurons are considered "non-specific" and can respond to many types of stimuli. These neurons transmit signals from all sensory organs (eyes, skin, muscles, internal organs, etc.) to the structures of the limbic system and the cerebral cortex.

Some areas of the reticular formation have more specific functions. For example, a special section of the reticular formation, called blue spot(this is a dense accumulation of neurons, the processes of which form widely branching networks with one output, using norepinephrine as a transmitter), is related to the awakening of emotions. From the locus coeruleus to the thalamus, hypothalamus and many areas of the cortex there are nerve pathways along which an awakened emotional reaction can spread widely throughout all structures of the brain. According to some reports, a lack of norepinephrine in the brain leads to depression. Positive effect electroconvulsive therapy, which in most cases eliminates depression in the patient, is associated with increased synthesis and increased concentration of norepinephrine in the brain. The results of a study of the brain of patients who committed suicide in a state of depression showed that it is depleted of norepinephrine and serotonin. It is possible that norepinephrine plays a role in the occurrence of reactions subjectively perceived as pleasure. In any case, a deficiency of norepinephrine manifests itself in the appearance of depressive states associated with melancholy, and a lack of adrenaline is associated with depression and anxiety.

Another section of the reticular formation, called black substance, is a collection of neurons that also form widely branching networks with one output, but secrete another transmitter - dopamine, which contributes to the emergence of pleasant sensations. It is possible that he is involved in the emergence of a special mental state– euphoria.

Frontal lobes cerebral cortex from all parts of the cerebral cortex in to the greatest extent responsible for the occurrence and awareness of emotional experiences. Direct neural pathways from the thalamus, limbic system, and reticular formation go to the frontal lobes.

Injuries to people in the frontal lobes of the brain show that most often they experience mood changes from euphoria to depression, as well as a kind of loss of orientation, expressed in the inability to make plans. Sometimes mental changes resemble depression: the patient exhibits apathy, loss of initiative, emotional inhibition, and indifference to sex. Sometimes the changes are similar to psychopathic behavior: sensitivity to social signals is lost, incontinence in behavior and speech appears.

There are many facts indicating that the left and right hemispheres of the brain make different contributions to the emotional sphere of a person. More emotional is right hemisphere.

Almost all diseases are psychosomatic in nature. All our disorders stem from past threats to survival associated with pain, fear and relative unconsciousness. This is what is called life experience or the experience of our ancestors. This information is stored in our subconscious.

When something happens in the present that is even remotely similar to previous stressful situations, we choose a model of behavior not consciously, but subconsciously - we begin to react reflexively. After all, during times of stress, we have no time to think about new behavior patterns, especially if there are those that once helped us survive in a similar situation. That is, in fact, we react not to what is happening to us now, but to what once happened to us or our ancestors. And that is why our actions often do not bring the desired result.

Unlike animals, which react to the real situation in which they find themselves, man also reacts to what he himself comes up with. Our body begins to act as soon as we think about something, and if there is no corresponding action manifested, tension remains in the body. This condition is called incomplete movement syndrome. The body spends a significant resource on its maintenance. Over time, unfinished states accumulate and a chronic fatigue and various diseases of a psychosomatic nature.
All our emotions begin with the body. The energy of the body is the first to react to everything that happens to us. Then the cardiovascular and nervous systems and body muscles are connected. And only then the brain begins to control our reaction, modifying the instinctive reaction to an acceptable form in accordance with social norms and rules. If the reaction is adequate to the external influence, i.e. it has fully responded, all systems and organs return to their “original” position.

If a man long time is in stressful situation, he had to restrain himself or experience fear and other emotions without being able to fully and adequately react to them, such emotions are called “stuck”. In this case, zones are formed in the body that are highly sensitive to external influences and determine a behavioral stereotype. Moreover, everyone has 1-2 “favorite emotions” with which he responds to everything that happens - he is always afraid or always angry, or is always dissatisfied with everything, etc. . As a rule, these reactions do not correspond to what is happening and do not bring the desired result. .

There are 4 pairs in the human body key areas(right and left):

1. On the head. If you place your palms on the right and left side of your face, with the bottoms of your palms level with your earlobes, these key areas will be underneath them.
2. IN chest. They contain the lungs, bronchi, and pulmonary vessels.
3. Below the diaphragm. They contain:

• left: kidney with adrenal gland, spleen, pancreas (body and tail), left part of the stomach, left lobe of the liver, arteries of these organs
• right: kidney with adrenal gland, right lobe of the liver, gall bladder, duodenum, head of the pancreas, vessels of these organs

1. In the pelvic area. They contain: iliac arteries, pelvic nerve plexuses, appendages (in women), sections of the large intestine located in these areas.

Key zones are almost always active, but to varying degrees - depending on the time of day, situation, solar activity, condition magnetic field land. The activity of these zones is associated with a person’s state and emotions.

A stable combination of these active zones corresponds to certain behavior patterns:

• activity of all right zones (D1, D2, D3, D4) - “savior” - “I know better how it should be, there can be no other options, I will achieve this and force others to do it, but the result does not meet expectations”
• activity of all left zones (S1, S2, S3, S4) “victim” - “I’m scared, I can’t handle this, I’m to blame for this (or offended for this), I don’t want to hear about it (see it)”
• “perfectionist diagonal” (S4, D3, D2, D1) – “I’m scared, but I have to do it, I know how, but I’m not doing it well enough”
• “procrastinator diagonal” (D4, S3, S2, S1) – “not now (I won’t do it), I can’t, it’s my fault, I don’t want to see this”
• (D4, D3, S2, S1) “capricious” – “I have no way out (other options), I’m angry, offended and don’t want to see it”
• (S4, S3, D2, D1) “caring parent” - “I’m scared, they’re doing everything wrong, I know better how, I don’t see what I want.”

You yourself can determine which zones are active in you and adjust them .

To do this, you can stand in front of a mirror and see which zone on each level attracts your attention. After that, simply observe the zones that you pay attention to, starting with the lower active key zones. More details

At the physical level, the activity of key zones is accompanied by vascular spasm and stagnation of fluid in the active zone. Long-term (constant) activity of one key zone causes changes in the tissues of blood vessels and organs located in it, which becomes the cause of various diseases. Often the cause of headaches, chronic diseases of the throat and nasopharynx is the activity of key areas of the pelvic region, and the cause pain in leg joints – activity of the right subphrenic region. Curvatures of the spine can be caused by the activity of key zones located in the chest or in the subdiaphragmatic region, and the curvature is often directed towards the active zone. At the same time, activity in key areas of the head can cause pain in the lower back and sacrum. Prostatitis, fibroids, and infertility are often caused by activity in key areas of the pelvic region.

Activity in key areas can also be a consequence of injuries, including very old ones. For example, in case of serious leg injuries (dislocations, fractures, torn ligaments, severe bruises), the body, protecting the sore spot, transfers most of the load to the healthy leg. And even after the consequences of the injury have been eliminated, normal distribution loads are not always fully restored, an imbalance appears on the right and left sides of the body. As a result, the activity of key areas that are constantly experiencing increased stress as a result of compensating for the effects of injury may increase. Thus, an old trauma that everyone has long forgotten about can also determine behavioral stereotypes.

You probably understand now why treatment of a sore spot (if the pain is not associated with direct injury) is often not very successful, and the disease (pain) periodically returns or becomes chronic.

CHAPTER 16. Element of the brain: emotions

Most people believe that emotions only prevent us from making wise choices, but this is not true. Emotions (as opposed to moods) arise in response to events in the world around us and help our brain focus on decisive information - against threat physical harm to social opportunities. Emotions help us choose behavior to achieve a desired goal and avoid what we fear.

Most decisions in life cannot be based solely on logical reasoning, since the information we have is usually incomplete or ambiguous. How easy it is to decide whether to change jobs if you know in advance whether you can cope with the new one and how much it will satisfy you. Usually, however, all we have is an intuitive feeling that we should try it. This works great as long as your orbitofrontal cortex, a key part of the brain's emotional system, is healthy.

When this area is damaged, people face big problems. One famous patient, EVR, was the chief financial officer of a small company, living with his wife and two children, when, at the age of 35, he was diagnosed with a tumor in the front of his brain. During the operation, most of his orbitofrontal cortex was removed. After this, he was still able to have intelligent conversations about economics, imports, and current events, and reason about difficult financial and ethical situations. His memory and intelligence had not changed, but it was no longer him. EVR had problems when trying to make the simplest decision. He spent a long time comparing different shirts in the morning, trying to determine which was better. More difficult choices were no easier for him. Soon enough, he lost his job, his wife left him, and after an unsuccessful attempt to start new business he moved in with his parents. EVR married a prostitute, but she also left him six months later.

Such catastrophic consequences often occur in people with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (although the results of brain damage also largely depend on individual genes, life history, and personal characteristics before the defect occurred). Many patients retain the ability to plan and execute complex sequences of actions, but they do not seem to think about the consequences of their behavior. They show little concern about a very risky undertaking, and they are not embarrassed by actions that most of us would find offensive.

In fact, they do not seem to experience social emotions that would be appropriate in certain situations, although they do exhibit other emotions. This may be because they have difficulty monitoring their own behavior and how consistent it is. social rules. If the damage occurs in adulthood, patients can correctly name existing rules, but usually they simply don’t apply them in life. Those whose brains were damaged in childhood cannot even describe existing standards social interactions, and not just follow them.

Did you know? Emotions and memory

Chances are you remember your last vacation better than your last visit to the post office. Psychologists have long known that emotionally intense events leave more vivid memories. Emotional uplift ensures that important details of an experience are retained for a longer period of time, sometimes at the expense of forgetting less important details. People with damage to the amygdala do not have this enhanced memory of key details of an emotionally charged event, meaning this part of the brain is most likely responsible for the influence of emotions on memory. The amygdala is involved in the process of remembering important situations during both positive and negative emotions.

Emotional highs cause the release of adrenaline, which activates the vagus nerve, part of the sympathetic nervous system (which controls the so-called fight-or-flight reflex). The vagus nerve transmits information to the brainstem, from there it enters the amygdala and hippocampus, which perform important functions in the process of memorization. As a result of this activity, synaptic plasticity increases in both brain regions, a process thought to underlie learning (see Chapter 13). Blocking the receptors for this information in the amygdala prevents adrenaline from enhancing memory, while activating them improves this process.

Stressful situations also lead to the release of glucocorticoids (stress hormones). These hormones act directly on the hippocampus and amygdala to improve memory. Damage to the amygdala prevents glucocorticoids from enhancing memory in the hippocampus, so amygdala activity appears to be necessary in this process.

In some conditions, stress can damage memory. Glucocorticoids interfere with working memory processes by affecting the prefrontal cortex. Chronic stress can damage the hippocampus (see Chapter 10), leading to constant problems with remembering all types of information, not just emotionally charged events.

Now that we've explained why emotions are so important, let's look at other parts of the brain. The amygdala is best known for its role in generating the fear response (see Chapter 13), but it also responds quickly to positive stimuli. Moreover, the amygdala plays an important role in focusing attention on emotionally significant events in the world. Neurons in the amygdala respond to light, sound, touch, and sometimes all three at the same time. Many neurons specialize in objects, especially meaningful ones (like faces or food). The activity of these neurons changes depending on the animal's needs. Thus, the neuron responsible for the animal’s need for fruit juice stops responding after the animal has drunk.

Removing the amygdala reduces some fear responses in both animals and humans. But especially this damage reduces the physical manifestation of anxiety. For example, when playing cards, people with a defect of the amygdala do not show a reaction to risk - their palms do not sweat and their heartbeat does not increase. (You might think that this would give them a great time in Las Vegas, but it doesn't. It turns out that emotional reactions are necessary for people to make the right decisions in an uncertain situation.) Likewise, animals with damage to the amygdala are less likely to react to anxiety-provoking situations. , showing less vigilance and fear.

Animals with damage to a specific part of the amygdala have problems performing tasks that require them to critically perceive the value of an object or situation. Otherwise, it may happen that you put a piece of chocolate in your mouth, and it turns out that it is licorice (and it does not matter what you prefer). These animals remain normal taste preferences, and they work for the treat, although they lose the ability to critically evaluate the food offered and cannot learn to avoid food, which then makes them sick.

Most emotions are generated by general regions of the brain, but there are a few specific regions that specialize in emotion. Certain types of brain damage can affect expressions of disgust or fear without affecting other emotions. In Chapter 17, we'll take a closer look at the role of the amygdala in creating the emotion of fear.

Disgust is an emotion that arose long ago in the process of evolution so that maturing animals learned to identify edible food. The subcortical nodes and insula of the brain are mainly responsible for disgust.

Electrical stimulation of the islet in humans leads to a state of nausea and unpleasant taste. Rats with damage to one of these areas had difficulty identifying the food that made them sick.

In humans, the role of these areas is expanded to include the ability to recognize similar sensations in others. Patients in whom these regions were damaged were unable to recognize disgust expressions in people, as is the case in patients with Huntington's disease (a movement disorder caused by degeneration of neurons in the striatum (parts of the basal ganglia).

It is noteworthy that the same areas of the brain cause us to wrinkle our nose not only at spoiled food, but also when we violate accepted moral standards. For example, the insula is activated when people remember something that makes them feel guilty, an emotion similar to self-disgust.

A more general activity of the insula can be considered the feeling of the state of our body and the awakening of those emotions that will motivate us to do what our body needs. Of course, we can’t always trust what our body wants, since the insula also activates the body’s need for drugs or nicotine. The insula sends information to areas involved in decision making, such as the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex. The insula is also involved in organizing social behavior. It helps us guess a person's emotions (such as embarrassment) based on their physical state (flushed face). The insula is one of several brain systems that respond similarly to one's own activity or state and to the state of another person. Another is the mirror neuron system (see Chapter 24).

Our emotions (and the brain systems that generate them) are similar to the reactions of animals. However, human emotions are particularly complex, in part because of the large frontal cortex. Although mice can be afraid, it is difficult to imagine a mouse feeling shame. Emotions control much of our social behavior, so it is not surprising that the areas of the brain associated with generating emotions are equally important in controlling social cues. The so-called social emotions (guilt, shame, envy, embarrassment, pride, etc.) arise later in the development process than the basic emotions of happiness, fear, sadness, disgust and anger. These emotions guide our social behavior, including the desire to help other people and the desire to punish cheaters, even to our detriment. Experiments have shown that people with stronger emotional states are more prone to altruism or forced compliance with social norms.

Now let's think about how the situation can affect our emotional state. For example, if your loved one doesn't show up on time at a restaurant, you may be angry with him, or you may be scared, thinking that he had an accident. Finding out that he was late because he was helping someone who had a heart attack can make you feel proud and happy.

This example illustrates how our brain is able to change the emotions we experience depending on our intentions or perception of events. Several regions of the cerebral cortex send information to the central emotional system to change the perception of an emotional response. The simplest form of emotional regulation is distraction, switching attention to something else, usually temporarily. As studies have shown, when switching is active, activity in emotional systems decreases. Distraction can reduce negative emotions associated with physical pain. This is partly due to reduced activity in some areas associated with pain response (such as the insula), while activity in areas associated with cognitive control increases (mainly in the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex). Likewise, anticipation of a situation in which a positive or negative emotion, often activates the same areas of the brain that are responsible for reacting in a given situation.

An effect similar to distraction can be caused consciously. For example, some yoga masters claim that they do not feel pain during meditation. Scientists scanned the brain of a meditating yogi. The laser then began to stimulate a specific area, which would normally cause very strong pain, but no signs of pain were noticed, and activity in the insula increased only slightly.

A longer lasting way to regulate emotions is reappraisal. Reappraisal occurs when you reframe the meaning of an event, causing your emotions to change as well. For example, if your little daughter burns her hand on a hot stove, you might feel angry that she didn't listen to you, and then feel guilty because you weren't careful enough to prevent her from getting burned. However, after a little thought, you may realize that the burn is not serious and will go away quickly, and that your daughter has learned a good lesson about the importance of following your instructions. Both of these thoughts will help you not feel too bad about the incident.

Did you know? How our brains recognize humor

Humor is difficult to define, but we can feel it. There is a theory that humor contains surprise - the ending of a story is not what we expect, causing us to reinterpret the meaning of what we heard earlier to fit the unexpected ending. An anecdote, unlike a logical riddle, is a coherent but not very logical story.

Some patients with damage to the frontal lobe of the brain, especially the right one, do not understand jokes at all. This is usually because they are having difficulty with the reinterpretation stage. For example, if you tell them the beginning of a joke and give them several endings to choose from, they will not be able to tell which one will be funny.

Laughter or feelings of amusement have been induced in epileptic patients by stimulating the prefrontal cortex or inferior temporal lobe. Brain scans showed that the lower and middle area The prefrontal cortex is activated when a person perceives a joke. Since humor includes both emotional and cognitive components, it has certain meaning, since these prefrontal areas integrate both functions.

Humor makes a person feel better, probably because it activates the pleasure center, which is also responsible for other pleasurable things, such as food and sex (see Chapter 18). When combined with surprise, a feeling of pleasure can cause laughter. Perhaps, back in ancient times, laughter was a signal that an alarming situation was actually safe. Various types Humor activates areas of the brain that respond to emotional stimuli—the amygdala, midbrain, anterior cingulate cortex, and insular cortex. The latter areas are also activated in situations of uncertainty or absurdity, so they can participate in the process of reinterpretation when understanding a joke. How funnier to a person It seems like a joke, the more these areas are activated (and the pleasure center too). The positive effects of humor go beyond just making you feel good. The ability to make other people laugh can improve social relationships, help you find a life partner, or effectively communicate your ideas to others.

Humor reduces the effects of stress on the heart, immune system and hormones. So if you're laughing at something that other people don't find funny, remember that you'll probably have the last laugh.

Reappraisal occurs in the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex. During experiments, people who tried to interpret emotional stimuli differently experienced increased activity in these areas. As a result of successful reappraisal, another area of ​​the brain was activated that is responsible for the physical manifestations of emotional changes - for example, decreased activity in the amygdala when someone tried to reappraise stimuli and make them less scary. These changes in the brain are remarkably similar to the patterns of activity that occur in response to a placebo, another example of how people can perceive the same situation differently depending on their own beliefs.

People who are capable of reappraisal are usually more emotionally stable and easier to adapt to different situations. In the process of psychotherapy, many people want to improve their ability to productively reappraise situations. Overall, as mammals with a large frontal cortex, we can learn to control our emotional reactions. Reappraisal, unlike most mental abilities, improves with age, perhaps as a consequence of maturation of the prefrontal cortex or simply as a result of practice. This fact may explain why older people generally feel happier and experience fewer negative emotions.

So the next time you hear the phrase, “Don’t be so emotional!”, you will know the truth. Your emotions, both positive and negative, are your quick-response guide to effective behavior, helping you predict the likely consequences of actions when there is insufficient information to make a logical conclusion. Don't worry and show your emotions. As long as your emotion regulation system is in good working order, you are more likely to make good choices.

Humor can be cut into pieces like a laboratory frog, but then he will die in the process, and his internal organs will depress anyone but a real scientist.