The International Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, can be seen mainly as an expression of universal concern about the loss of what cannot be restored - species of living beings, each of which occupies a certain place in the structure of the biosphere. Will united humanity be able to preserve biological diversity? This largely depends on the attention to historical processes and current factors under the influence of which biological diversity as we know it, or, more precisely, we know it to a small extent, has developed.

We don't know how many species there are. There may be up to 30 million in the tropical forest canopy alone, although most researchers accept a more conservative figure of 5-6 million. There is only one way to save them - by protecting the tropical forest as an ecosystem from clear cutting and pollution. In other words, to preserve species diversity, it is necessary first of all to take care of the diversity of a higher level—ecosystems. At this level, tundras and polar deserts deserve no less attention than tropical forests, with which they are comparable in spatial parameters as structural units biosphere, although much poorer in species.

Biological diversity (BD) is the diversity of forms and processes in the organic world, manifested at the molecular genetic, population, taxonomic and coenotic levels of the organization of living things. Although the levels of organization are named here in their traditional sequence from bottom to top (each subsequent level includes the previous ones), this order of consideration does not provide much for understanding the nature of the BD. If we are interested in the reasons for the emergence of the BR (according to religious beliefs, the BR arose as a result of a creative act, the logic of which should also be accessible to a rational being), then it is better to move from top to bottom, starting with the biosphere - the earth’s shell containing organisms and the products of their vital activity. The biosphere is superimposed on the physical shells of the Earth - the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere, the composition of which is largely determined by the biogenic cycle of substances.

Each of these shells, in turn, is heterogeneous in physical properties And chemical composition in the direction of the action of gravity and rotational forces that determine the division into the troposphere and stratosphere, oceans, marginal seas and inland reservoirs, continents with their geomorphological heterogeneities, etc. Heterogeneity of conditions is also created by the uneven distribution of incoming solar energy over the earth's surface. The latitudinal climatic zonation on the continents is complemented by climatic vectors directed from the coast inland. The natural change in conditions in height above sea level and depth creates vertical zonation, which is partly similar to latitudinal zonation. Life is superimposed on all these heterogeneities, forming a continuous film that is not interrupted even in deserts.

Continuous living cover is the result of long evolution. Life arose at least 3.5 billion years ago, but for about 6/7 of that time the land remained virtually lifeless, as were the deep oceans. The expansion of life was carried out through adaptation to different conditions of existence, differentiation of life forms, each of which, within its habitats, is most effective in using natural resources (you can try to replace all the diversity with one species, which is essentially what modern man, but the efficiency of using biosphere resources will decrease sharply as a result).

Conditions changed not only in space, but also in much the same way in time. Some forms of life have proven to be more adaptable to change than others. Life was interrupted in certain zones, but, at least in the last 600 million years, there were constantly forms that could survive the crisis and fill the gaps formed (remains of more ancient organisms are few, and we are not sure that during Precambrian history life did not was interrupted). Thus, BR ensures the continuity of life over time.

As life covered the surface of the planet with a continuous film, the organisms themselves increasingly acquired the importance of the main factor in the formation of living space, the functional structure of the biosphere, associated with the biogenic transformation of matter and energy carried out within its boundaries, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the distribution of roles between organisms, their functional specialization . Each functional cell of the biosphere - an ecosystem - is a local collection of organisms and components of their environment interacting in the process of biogenic circulation. The spatial expression of an ecosystem can be a landscape, its facies (in this case we speak of a biogeocenosis, which, according to V.N. Sukachev, includes a geological substrate, soil, vegetation, animal and microbial population), any component of the landscape (reservoir, soil, plant community) or a single organism with its external internal symbionts.

The functional space of an ecosystem (multidimensional, as opposed to physical) is divided into ecological niches corresponding to the distribution of roles between organisms. Each niche has its own life form, a kind of role that determines the basic morphophysiological characteristics of organisms and, in the order of feedback, depends on them. The formation of an ecological niche is a reciprocal process in which the organisms themselves play an active role. In this sense, niches do not exist separately from life forms. However, the predetermination of the structure of the ecosystem, associated with its functional purpose, makes it possible to recognize “empty niches” that must certainly be filled in order for the structure to be preserved.

Thus, biological diversity is necessary to maintain the functional structure of the biosphere and its constituent ecosystems.

A stable combination of functionally interrelated life forms forms a biotic community (biocenosis), the composition of which is the more diverse, the more complex the structure of the ecosystem, and this latter depends mainly on the stability of the processes occurring in the ecosystem. Thus, in the tropics, diversity is higher, since photosynthesis is not interrupted throughout the year.

Another issue related to community development and restoration is most important function BR - reparation. Species perform different roles during autogenetic succession—the change of development stages from pioneer to climax. Pioneer species are undemanding with regard to the quality and stability of the environment and have a high reproductive potential. By stabilizing the environment, they gradually give way to more competitive species. This process moves towards the final phase (climax), which can long time hold the territory while being in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Since a variety of external influences constantly disrupt succession, monoclimax most often remains a theoretical possibility. Development stages are not completely replaced, but coexist in complex succession systems, providing them with the opportunity to recover from destructive influences. The restoration function is usually performed by rapidly reproducing pioneer species.

It would be an exaggeration to say that we can accurately determine the functional purpose of each species in any of the many ecosystems. The removal of a species also does not always lead to their destruction. Much depends on the complexity of the ecosystem (in Arctic communities with a relatively simple trophic structure, the proportion of each species is much higher than in the tropics), its successional and evolutionary stage of development, which determines the overlap (duplication) of ecological niches and the redundancy of structural elements. At the same time, duplication and redundancy in systems theory are considered as stability factors, that is, they have a functional meaning.

All of the above allows us to conclude that the random element in the BR does not play a significant role. BR is functional. Each of its components is formed by the system in which it is included, and in turn, according to the principle of feedback, determines the features of its structure.

In general, the BR reflects the spatiotemporal and functional structure of the biosphere, ensuring: 1) the continuity of the living cover of the planet and the development of life over time, 2) the efficiency of biogenic processes in the ecosystem, 3) maintaining dynamic balance and restoration of communities.

These appointments determine the structure of the BR at all hierarchical levels of its organization.

^ Structure of biological diversity

The genetic material in most organisms is contained in huge molecules of DNA and RNA, filamentous polynucleotides, which have the form of a ring chromosome or a set of linear chromosomes, which are extremely diverse in general content DNA, number, shape, development of various types of heterochromatin. and also by the types of reconstructions in which they participate. All this creates a diversity of genomes as complex systems, comprising - in higher organisms - tens of thousands of discrete genetic elements, or genes. Their discreteness is structural in nature (for example, unique or repeatedly repeated sequences of nucleotides) or expressed functionally, as in protein-coding elements that are reproduced as a whole, jointly controlled, involved in cross-exchange between paired chromosomes, and, finally, elements that move throughout the genome. When the molecular mechanisms were not understood, the concept of a gene was abstract and it was endowed with all these functions, but it is now known that they are performed by structurally distinct genetic particles that make up the diversity of gene types. As a result of changes in the nucleotide composition, or mutations, similar sections of paired chromosomes have different structures. Such regions-chromosomal loci, known in several states, are called polymorphic. Genetic polymorphism is transformed into protein polymorphism, which is studied by molecular genetic methods, and, ultimately, into the genetic diversity of organisms. At these derived levels, gene diversity appears indirectly, since traits are determined by the genetic system and not by individual genes.

N.I. Vavilov showed on extensive material that the diversity of hereditary characters in closely related species is repeated with such accuracy that it is possible to predict the existence of a variant that has not yet been found in nature. Thus, the orderliness of genetic variability was revealed (contrary to the ideas about the unpredictability of mutations), in which the properties of the genome as a system are manifested. This fundamental generalization, formulated as the law of homological series, underlies the study of the structure of BR.

The transfer of hereditary information from one generation to another is carried out in the process of reproduction of organisms, which can be asexual, sexual, in the form of alternating asexual and sexual generations. This diversity is superimposed on differences in the mechanisms of sex determination, separation of sexes, etc. It is enough to recall the species of fish consisting of only females (reproduction is stimulated by males of other species) or the ability of females to turn into males, if there are not enough of them, to imagine the diversity reproduction processes in vertebrates, not to mention organisms such as fungi, where it is many times higher.

Organisms involved in reproduction constitute the reproductive resources of a species, which are structured according to a variety of reproductive processes. The units of the reproduction system are demylocal groups of interbreeding individuals and populations, larger groups within a landscape or ecosystem. Accordingly, geographic and coenotic populations are distinguished, although their boundaries may coincide.

During the process of reproduction, a recombination of genes occurs, which seem to belong to the population as a whole, constituting its gene pool (the gene pool is also spoken of in a broader sense as the totality of genes of fauna or flora; this is partly justified, since at least an episodic exchange of genes is possible during hybridization or transfer of genetic material by microorganisms). The unity of the population, however, is ensured not only by a common gene pool, but also by entering into geographical or biological systems of a higher level.

Populations from neighboring landscapes or ecosystems always show some variation, although they may be so close that taxonomists consider them to be a single species. In essence, a species is a collection of populations of a number of historically interconnected landscape and (or) coenotic complexes. The integrity of a species as a system is determined by the historical commonality of its constituent populations, the flow of genes between them, as well as their adaptive similarity due to similar living conditions and coenotic functions. The latter factors are also effective in relation to asexual organisms, determining the universal significance of the species as the basic unit of biological diversity (the often exaggerated idea of ​​​​sexual gene transfer as the most significant criterion of a biological species makes us see in it a category characteristic exclusively of dioecious organisms, which contradicts taxonomic practice).

The properties of a species are determined, as we have already noted, by that part of the ecological space that it stably occupies, i.e. ecological niche. At the early stages of development of the biological community, there is a significant overlap of ecological niches, but in the established coenotic system, species, as a rule, occupy fairly separate niches, however, a transition from one niche to another is possible during growth (for example, in attached forms with mobile larvae) , entering various communities in some cases as a dominant species, in others as a secondary species. There is some disagreement among experts regarding the nature of biotic communities: whether they are random collections of species that have found suitable conditions for themselves, or integral systems like organisms. These extreme views most likely reflect a diversity of communities that are vastly unequal in their systemic properties. Also, species are sensitive to their coenotic environment to varying degrees, from independent (conditionally, since they belong to communities of higher ranks) to “faithful”, according to which associations, unions and classes are distinguished. This classification approach was developed in Central Europe and is now widely accepted. A rougher “physiognomic” classification based on dominant species is adopted in northern countries, where relatively homogeneous forest formations still occupy vast areas. Within the landscape-climatic zones, groups of characteristic formations form the biomes of tundras, taiga forests, steppes, etc. - the largest landscape-cenotic divisions of the biosphere.

^ Evolution of biological diversity

BR develops into a process of interaction between the biosphere and the physical shells of the Earth on which it is superimposed. The movement of the earth's crust and climatic events cause adaptive changes in the macrostructure of the biosphere. For example, a glacial climate has a higher diversity of biomes than an ice-free climate. Not only polar deserts, but also tropical rainforests owe their existence to the atmospheric circulation system, which is formed under the influence of polar ice (see above). The structure of biomes, in turn, reflects the contrast of relief and climate, the diversity of geological substrates and soils - the heterogeneity of the environment as a whole. The species diversity of their constituent communities depends on the granularity of the division of ecological space, and this latter depends on the stability of conditions. In general, the number of species s==g – p y, where a is the diversity of species in communities, p is the diversity of communities and y is the diversity of biomes. These components change with a certain periodicity, rebuilding the entire BR system. For example, in the Mesozoic (glacial-free climate) plant diversity approximately corresponds to modern in similar formations of hard-leaved shrubs and summer-green forests, but total number There are approximately half as many species as there are today due to low diversity.

Genetic diversity in turn changes as a function of species' adaptive strategies. The fundamental property of a population is that, theoretically, during its reproduction, the frequencies of genes and genotypes are preserved from generation to generation (Hardy-Weinberg rule), changing only under the influence of mutations, genetic drift and natural selection. Variants of the structure of genetic loci - alleles - that arise as a result of mutations often do not have an adaptive effect and constitute a neutral part of polymorphism, subject to random changes - genetic drift, and not directed selection - hence the model of “non-Darwinian” evolution.

Although the evolution of population diversity is always the combined result of drift and selection, their ratio depends on the state of ecosystems. If the structure of the ecosystem is disturbed and stabilizing selection is weakened, then evolution becomes incoherent: genetic diversity increases due to mutagenesis and drift without a corresponding increase in species diversity. Stabilizing an ecosystem directs population strategy toward more efficient use of resources. In this case, the more pronounced heterogeneity (“coarse grain”) of the environment becomes a factor in the selection of genotypes that are most adapted to the “grain” of the landscape-coenotic mosaic. At the same time, neutral polymorphism acquires adaptive significance, and the ratio of drift and selection changes in favor of the latter. Progressive differentiation of demes becomes the basis for the fragmentation of species. Developing steadily over thousands of years, these processes create exceptionally high species diversity.

The system, thus, directs the evolution of the organisms included in it (let us note, to avoid misunderstandings, that organisms not included in the coenotic systems do not exist: even the so-called coenophobic groups that disrupt the development of the community are included in systems of a higher rank).

The overarching evolutionary trend is one of increasing diversity, punctuated by sharp declines resulting in mass extinctions (about half at the end of the era of dinosaurs, 65 million years ago). The frequency of extinction coincides with the activation geological processes(movement

Earth's crust, volcanism) and climatic changes, pointing to a common cause.

In the past, J. Cuvier explained such crises by the direct destruction of species as a result of marine transgressions and other disasters. C. Darwin and his followers did not attach any importance to crises, attributing them to the incompleteness of the geological Chronicle. Nowadays, no one doubts crises; Moreover, we are experiencing one of them. A general explanation of crises is given by the ecosystem theory of evolution (see above), according to the second, the reduction in diversity occurs due to the stability of the environment, which determines the tendency towards

simplification of the structure of ecosystems (some species turn out to be redundant),

interruption of successions (species of the final climax stage are doomed to extinction) and

increasing the minimum population size (in a stable environment, a small number of individuals ensures reproduction, a “dense packing” of species is possible, but in a crisis, a population that is small and incapable of rapid growth can easily disappear).

These patterns are also valid for the anthropogenic crisis of our days.

^ Human Impact on Biodiversity

The direct ancestors of humans appeared about 4.4 million years ago, at the beginning of the Gilbertian paleomagnetic era, marked by the expansion of glaciation in the Antarctic, aridization and the spread of herbaceous vegetation in low latitudes. The habitat, bordering the tropical forest and savannah, the relatively weak specialization of the teeth, the anatomy of the limbs, adapted both for movement in open areas and for arboreal acrobatics, indicate a wide ecological louse of Australopithecus africanus, the oldest representative of this group. Subsequently, evolution enters a coherent phase, and species diversity increases. Two lines of adaptive radiation—australopithecus graceful and massive—developed along the path of food specialization, in the third—Homo labilis—at the level of 2.5 million years, signs of tool activity appeared as a prerequisite for the expansion of the food niche.

The latter turned out to be more promising in the unstable conditions of the Ice Age, the crisis phases of which corresponded to the wide distribution of polymorphic species of Homo erectus and later Homo sapiens, with a discrepancy between high genetic and low species diversity characteristic of incoherent evolution. Each of them

Then it entered the phase of subspecific differentiation. About 30 thousand years ago, the specialized Neanderthal subspecies of the “reasonable” was supplanted by the nominative subspecies, the fragmentation of which took place along the line of cultural rather than biological evolution. Wide adaptive capabilities have ensured its relative independence from local ecosystems, which has recently developed into coenophobia. As we have already noted, coenophobia is possible only up to a certain level of the hierarchy of natural systems. Cenophobia regarding the biosphere as a whole dooms the species to self-destruction.

Humans influence all factors of BR - spatio-temporal heterogeneity of conditions, the structure of ecosystems and their stability. Disruption of the climax community as a result of logging or fires may result in some increase in species diversity due to pioneer and successional species. Spatial heterogeneity in some cases increases (for example, vast forest areas are dismembered, accompanied by a slight increase in species diversity). More often, a person creates more homogeneous conditions. This is expressed in the leveling of the relief (in urbanized areas), clearing forests, plowing up steppes, draining swamps, introducing alien species that displace local ones, etc.

Human influence on temporary factors is expressed in the multiple acceleration of natural processes, such as desertification or drying out of inland seas (for example, the Aral Sea, which in the past repeatedly dried out without human intervention). The human impact on the global climate destabilizes biosphere rhythms and creates a general precondition for simplifying the structure of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and, consequently, for the loss of BD.

Over the past two decades, forests have been reduced by almost 200 million hectares, and currently damage amounts to about 1% of the remaining area per year. These losses are distributed very unevenly: greatest damage inflicted on the tropical forests of Central America, Madagascar, and Southeast Asia, but also in the temperate zone, such forest formations as redwood in North America and China (metasequoia), Manchurian black fir in Primorye, etc. are on the verge of extinction. Within the steppe biome, almost no remaining undisturbed habitats. In the United States, more than half of the wetlands have been lost; in Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Vietnam, and in New Zealand, more than 80%.

Species loss due to habitat disturbance is difficult to estimate because methods for recording species diversity are very imperfect. If we take a “moderate” estimate of insect diversity for tropical forests at 5 million species and the number of species is proportional to the fourth root of the area, then losses due to deforestation will amount to 15,000 per year. Actual losses may differ significantly from those estimated. For example, in the Caribbean region, no more than 1% of primary forests remain, but the diversity of native bird species has declined by only 11%, as many species remain in secondary forests. Even more problematic is the assessment of the reduction in BR of soil biota, reaching 1000 species of invertebrates per square meter. m. The loss of soil cover as a result of erosion is estimated at a total of 6 million hectares per year - about 6 * 107 species can live in this area.

Probably the most significant losses of species diversity are associated with economic development and pollution of ecosystems characterized by a particularly high level of endemism. These include the hard-leaved formations of the Mediterranean and the Kalekoy province in southern Africa (6,000 endemic species), as well as rift lakes (Baikal - about 1,500 endemics, Malawi - more than 500).

According to (McNeely, 1992), the loss of species diversity by group since 1600 is:

Disappeared under threat

Higher plants 384 species (0.15%) 18699 (7.4%)

Pisces 23 -»- (0.12%) 320 (1.6%)

Amphibians 2-»-(0.05%) 48(1.1%)

Reptiles 21 -»- (0.33%) 1355 (21.5%)

Birds 113-»- (1.23%) 924 (10.0%)

Mammals 83 -»- (1.99%) 414 (10.0%)

Violation of the structure and function of ecosystems is associated with their use as raw materials, recreational and deposit (for waste disposal) resources, and raw material and deposit use can give directly opposite results. Thus, overgrazing, removal of canopy-forming trees or game animals disrupt the trophic structure and often return the ecosystem to the early stages of development, delaying succession. At the same time, the entry of organic pollutants into water bodies accelerates succession, passing the ecosystem through a eutrophic state to a hypertrophic one.

The size of the human population depends little on the size of the species being exterminated, so the feedback in the “predator-prey” system is broken, and a person gets the opportunity to completely exterminate one or another species of prey. In addition, in his role as a superpredator, man exterminates not the weak and sick, but rather the most complete individuals (this also applies to the practice of loggers to cut down the most powerful trees first).

However, the most important is the indirect damage from impacts that disrupt the balanced relationships and processes in ecosystems and thereby change the direction of the evolution of species. Evolutionary changes occur as a result of mutagenesis, genetic drift and natural selection. Radiation and chemical pollution have a mutagenic effect. The removal of biological resources - a significant part of natural populations - turns into a factor of genetic drift, forcing natural fluctuations in numbers, loss of genetic diversity and, giving an advantage to genotypes with accelerated sexual maturation and high reproductive potential (due to this, indiscriminate removal usually leads to accelerated sexual maturation and reduction ). The direction of natural selection can change under the influence of various biological and chemical factors. physical (noise, electromagnetic, etc.) pollution. Biological pollution - the deliberate or accidental introduction of alien species and biotechnological products (including laboratory strains of microorganisms, artificial hybrids and transgenic organisms) - is a common factor in the loss of natural BR. The most famous examples are the introduction of placentals into Australia (in fact, reintroduction, since they lived on this continent many millions of years ago), Elodea into the reservoirs of Eurasia, ctenophores into the Sea of ​​Azov, amphipods Corophium cnrvispinHm into the Rhine from the Ponto-Caspian region (from the first appearance in In 1987, the number of this species increased to 100 thousand individuals per 1 sq.m., competing with local species of zoobenthos, which serve as food for commercial fish and waterfowl). Biological pollution is undoubtedly facilitated by changes in habitats as a result of physical and chemical impacts (increased temperature and salinity, eutrophication in the case of the introduction of amphipod thermophilic filter feeders),

In some cases, the impact causes a chain reaction with far-reaching consequences. For example, the entry of eutrophicating substances into coastal waters from the continent and from mari culture causes blooming of dinoflaellates, secondary pollution with toxic substances - the death of cetaceans and an increase in the solubility of carbonates - the death of corals and other skeletal forms of benthos. Acid-forming pollution of water bodies, in addition to the direct impact on respiration (deposition of aluminum on the gills) and reproductive function of amphibian fish, poses a threat of extinction to many species of aquatic vertebrates and waterbirds due to a reduction in the biomass of the larvae of stoneflies, mayflies, and chironomids.

The same factors change the ratio of genotypes in animal and plant populations, giving an advantage to those more resistant to various types stress.

Pollution also becomes a powerful factor of natural selection. A classic example is the increase in the frequency of the melanistic form of Biston betularia butterflies in industrial areas, which they tried to explain by the fact that on soot-covered trunks they are less noticeable to birds than light forms. This long-standing textbook explanation seems naive, since under conditions of pollution, melanistic forms are more resistant in many species, including domestic cats and humans. This example cautions against simplistic views of the human impact on BD.

^ Conservation of biological diversity

In ancient times, as we have already noted, totemism and the religious ideas that grew out of it contributed to the preservation of individual species and their habitats. We owe the preservation of such relics as ginkgo mainly to the religious rituals of eastern peoples. In North America, European Colonists adopted from local tribes their normative attitude towards nature, while in European feudal countries nature was preserved mainly as royal hunting grounds and parks, with which the aristocracy protected itself from too close contact with the common people.

In early democracies, moral and aesthetic motives were supplanted by economic ones, which often came into conflict with the preservation of the BR. The utilitarian attitude towards nature has acquired especially ugly forms in totalitarian countries. P. A. Manteuffel, expressing the official position, wrote in 1934: “These groups (animals) formed without the influence (will) of man and for the most part do not correspond to the economic effect that could be obtained with a rational change in zoological boundaries and communities, and therefore we put forward the question of the reconstruction of the fauna, where, in particular, the artificial relocation of animals should occupy a prominent place.”

However, the new aristocracy - the party leadership and those close to it - also needed protected hunting grounds, called hunting reserves.

In the 60s, the reserves underwent a twofold reduction due to extensive economic development. In addition, the allocation of huge areas for monoculture had an extremely adverse effect on the state of the BR. In the early 80s, to implement the “food program,” roadsides, borders and inconveniences were plowed up, depriving wild species of their last refuges in developed areas.

Unfortunately, these trends have become further development during the period of perestroika in connection with the transfer of waste land to farmers and the development of private entrepreneurship in conditions of legislative chaos. Self-seizure of land for vegetable gardens, deforestation in green belts around cities, illegal extraction of rare species and free sale of biological resources have become common practice. The reserves have never enjoyed much popularity locally and, as control weakens, they are coming under increasing pressure from economic structures and poachers. The development of international tourism is causing damage to areas that were previously protected as sensitive areas. These include military training grounds and border lands (in Germany, a 600x5 km exclusion zone over the years of confrontation has turned into a kind of nature reserve, which is now trampled by crowds of tourists).

At the same time, there is reason to hope for an improvement in the situation (and, in particular, the transformation of former regime territories into nature reserves) thanks to universal recognition priority of conservation of the BR. The immediate challenge is to develop and strengthen national programs. Let us note some fundamental points that arise in this regard. Inventory and protection of biological diversity. Identification of the species structure in many cases is necessary for organizing protection. For example, the New Zealand tuatara, the only representative of the oldest group of beaked reptiles, has been protected since 1895, but only recently it became clear that there are two species of tuatara with subspecies, one of the species, S. guntheri, and a subspecies of the other, S.punctata reischeki were on the verge of extinction, and ten out of forty populations had already disappeared; Traditional taxonomy still has a long way to go in the field of conservation.

At the same time, the quite often expressed idea that for conservation it is necessary, first of all, to inventory all taxonomic diversity, has a somewhat demagogic connotation. There can be no question of describing the entire multimillion-dollar diversity of species in the foreseeable future. Species disappear without ever receiving the attention of a taxonomist. A more realistic approach is to develop a fairly detailed syntaxonomic classification of communities and organize the protection of in-situ on this basis. System security top level to a certain extent ensures the preservation of its components, some of which we do not know or know in the most general terms (but at least we do not exclude the possibility of finding out in the future). In the following sections we will look at some principles for organizing protection on a syntaxonomic basis to capture all or most of the taxonomic diversity.

Combining human rights with animal rights. Recognizing the rights of animals does not mean abandoning their use. After all, people are also used legally. It cannot be denied that it is fair that a person has more rights than an animal, just as an adult has more rights than a child. However, without falling into ecological terrorism, which is mostly provocative in nature, it should still be recognized that reasonable use has nothing to do with killing for pleasure or on a whim, as well as with cruel experimentation, which is also mostly senseless, according to

“In ancient times the richest countries were those whose nature was most abundant” - Henry Buckle.

Biodiversity is one of the fundamental phenomena that characterizes the manifestation of life on Earth. The decline in biodiversity occupies a special place among the main environmental problems of our time.

The consequence of the disappearance of species will be the destruction of existing ecological connections and degradation of natural groups, their inability to self-sustain, which will lead to their disappearance. Further reduction in biodiversity may lead to destabilization of the biota, loss of the integrity of the biosphere and its ability to maintain the most important characteristics environment. Due to the irreversible transition of the biosphere to a new state, it may become unsuitable for human life. Man is completely dependent on biological resources.

There are many reasons to conserve biodiversity. This is the need to use biological resources to meet the needs of humanity (food, technical materials, medicines, etc.), ethical and aesthetic aspects, and the like.

However main reason conservation of biodiversity is that biodiversity plays a leading role in ensuring the stability of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole (absorbing pollution, stabilizing the climate, providing conditions suitable for life).

The importance of biodiversity

To live and survive in nature, man has learned to use beneficial features components of biodiversity for obtaining food, raw materials for making clothing, tools, housing construction, and obtaining energy resources. The modern economy is based on the use of biological resources.

The economic importance of biodiversity lies in the use of biological resources - this is the foundation on which civilization is built. These resources are the basis of most human activities, such as Agriculture, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper industry, horticulture and horticulture, cosmetics production, construction and waste recycling.

Biodiversity is also a recreational resource. The recreational value of biodiversity is also of great importance for recreation. The main direction of recreational activity is to have fun without destroying nature. It's about about hiking, photography, bird watching, swimming with whales and wild dolphins, and the like. Rivers, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs create opportunities for water sports, boat trips, swimming, and recreational fishing. Around the world, the ecotourism industry is growing rapidly and includes up to 200 million people annually.

Health value

Biodiversity still hides many undiscovered medicines from us. For example, quite recently, ecologists using drones discovered it on one of the Hawaiian rocks.

For centuries, plant and animal extracts have been used by humans to treat various diseases. Modern medicine is showing interest in biological resources, hoping to find new types of medicines. There is an opinion that the wider the diversity of living things, the greater the opportunities for discovering new drugs.

The ecological value of species diversity is a prerequisite for the survival and sustainable functioning of ecosystems. Biological species provide soil formation processes. Thanks to the accumulation and transfer of essential nutrients, soil fertility is ensured. Ecosystems assimilate waste and absorb and destroy pollutants. They purify water and stabilize the hydrological regime, retaining groundwater. Ecosystems help maintain atmospheric quality by maintaining adequate oxygen levels through photosynthesis.

The study and protection of biological diversity has critical value for the sustainable development of civilization.

A reduction in the diversity of flora and fauna will inevitably affect human life, since biodiversity is the foundation of the spiritual and physical health of any nation. The value of biodiversity is enormous in itself, regardless of the extent to which it is used by people. If we want to preserve our mentality and national identity, we must preserve our nature. The state of nature is a mirror of the state of the nation. Biodiversity conservation - necessary condition survival of humanity.

Source: Environmental blog(website)

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What is biological diversity?

The conservation of biological diversity is a central task of wildlife conservation biology. According to the definition given by the World Wildlife Fund (1989), biological diversity is “the entire diversity of life forms on earth, the millions of species of plants, animals, microorganisms with their sets of genes and the complex ecosystems that make up living nature.” Thus, biological diversity should

considered at three levels. Biological diversity at the species level covers the entire range of species on Earth from bacteria and protozoa to the kingdom of multicellular plants, animals and fungi. At a finer scale, biological diversity includes the genetic diversity of species generated both by geographically distant populations and by individuals within the same population. Biological diversity also includes the diversity of biological communities, species, ecosystems formed by communities and the interactions between these levels.

For the continued survival of species and natural communities, all levels of biological diversity are necessary, and all of them are important for humans. Species diversity demonstrates the richness of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to different environments. Species diversity serves as a source of diverse natural resources for humans. For example, tropical rainforests, with their rich array of species, produce a remarkable variety of plant and animal products that can be used for food, construction and medicine. Genetic diversity is necessary for any species to maintain reproductive viability, resistance to disease, and the ability to adapt to changing conditions. The genetic diversity of domesticated animals and cultivated plants is especially valuable to those working on breeding programs to maintain and improve modern agricultural species.

Community-level diversity represents the collective response of species to different conditions environment. Biological communities found in deserts, steppes, forests, and floodplains maintain the continuity of normal ecosystem functioning by providing “maintenance,” such as flood control, soil erosion control, and air and water filtration.

biodiversity ecosystem environmental monitoring

Biological diversity is the main condition for the sustainability of all life on Earth. Biodiversity creates complementarity and interchangeability of species in biocenoses, ensures population regulation, and the self-healing abilities of communities and ecosystems. Due to this diversity, life has not been interrupted for several billion years. During difficult periods of geological history, many species became extinct and diversity decreased, but the ecosystems of the continents and oceans withstood these disasters. The main functions of a biocenosis in an ecosystem are the creation organic matter, its destruction and regulation of the number of species are ensured by many species, as if insuring each other’s activities (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Budyumkan River in the southeast of the Chita region

In this photo we see many species of plants growing together in a meadow in the floodplain of the river. Budyumkan in the southeast of the Chita region. Why did nature need so many species in one meadow?

Russian geobotanist L.G. Ramensky in 1910 formulated the principle of ecological individuality of species - a principle that is the key to understanding the role of biodiversity in the biosphere. We see that in every ecosystem many species live together at the same time, but we rarely think about the ecological meaning of this. The ecological individuality of plant species living in the same plant community in the same ecosystem allows the community to quickly restructure when external conditions change.

For example, during a dry summer in a given ecosystem main role Individuals of species A, which are more adapted to life in conditions of moisture deficiency, play a role in ensuring the biological cycle. In a wet year, individuals of species A are not at their optimum and cannot ensure the biological cycle under changed conditions. In this year, individuals of species B begin to play the main role in ensuring the biological cycle in this ecosystem. The third year turned out to be cooler; under these conditions, neither species A nor species B can ensure the full use of the ecological potential of this ecosystem. But the ecosystem is quickly being rebuilt, since it contains individuals of species B, which do not need warm weather and photosynthesize well at low temperatures.

Each type of living organism can exist in a certain range of values external factors. Outside these values, individuals of the species die. In the diagram (Figure 2) we see the endurance limits (tolerance limits) of the species according to one of the factors. Within these limits there is an optimum zone, the most favorable for the species, and two zones of inhibition. Rule L.G. Ramensky about the ecological individuality of species states that the endurance limits and optimum zones of different types living together do not coincide.

Figure 2. Limits of endurance (limits of tolerance) of a species according to one of the factors

If we look at how things are in real ecosystems of the Primorsky Territory, we will see that in a coniferous-deciduous forest, for example, on an area of ​​100 square meters. meters grow individuals of 5-6 species of trees, 5-7 species of shrubs, 2-3 species of lianas, 20-30 species of herbaceous plants, 10-12 species of mosses and 15-20 species of lichens. All these species are ecologically individual, and in different seasons of the year, in different weather conditions, their photosynthetic activity changes greatly. These species seem to complement each other, making the plant community as a whole more ecologically optimal.

By the number of species of similar life forms, with similar requirements for the external environment, living in one local ecosystem, one can judge how stable the conditions in this ecosystem are. In stable conditions, there will usually be fewer such species than in unstable conditions. If weather conditions do not change for a number of years, then the need for large quantities species disappear. In this case, the species that, under these stable conditions, is the most optimal of all possible species of a given flora is preserved. All the others are gradually being eliminated, unable to withstand the competition with him.

In nature we find a lot of factors or mechanisms that provide and maintain high species diversity of local ecosystems. First of all, such factors include excessive reproduction and overproduction of seeds and fruits. In nature, seeds and fruits are produced hundreds and thousands of times more than is necessary to make up for the natural loss due to premature death and dying from old age.

Thanks to adaptations for dispersing fruits and seeds over long distances, the rudiments of new plants end up not only in those areas that are favorable for their growth now, but also in those whose conditions are unfavorable for the growth and development of individuals of these species. Nevertheless, these seeds germinate here, exist in a depressed state for some time and die. This happens as long as environmental conditions are stable. But if conditions change, then previously doomed to death, seedlings of species unusual for this ecosystem begin to grow and develop here, going through their full cycle. individual development. Ecologists say that in the biosphere there is a powerful pressure of the diversity of life on all local ecosystems.

The general gene pool of the vegetation cover of a landscape area - its flora - is used most fully by the local ecosystems of this area precisely due to the pressure of biodiversity. At the same time, local ecosystems become richer in species. During their formation and restructuring, the ecological selection of suitable components is carried out from a larger number of candidates, the germs of which ended up in a given habitat. Thus, the likelihood of the formation of an ecologically optimal plant community increases.

Thus, a factor in the stability of a local ecosystem is not only the diversity of species living in this local ecosystem, but also the diversity of species in neighboring ecosystems from which the introduction of germs (seeds and spores) is possible. This applies not only to plants that lead an attached lifestyle, but even more so to animals that can move from one local ecosystem to another. Many animal species, although not specifically belonging to any local ecosystem (biogeocoenosis), nevertheless play an important ecological role and participate in ensuring the biological cycle in several ecosystems at once. Moreover, they can alienate biomass in one local ecosystem and throw out excrement in another, stimulating the growth and development of plants in this second local ecosystem. Sometimes such transfer of matter and energy from one ecosystem to another can be extremely powerful. This flow connects completely different ecosystems.

Factors that ensure high biodiversity of ecosystems include the processes of migration of species from neighboring territories from other landscape areas and other natural zones, as well as the processes of autochthonous speciation in place, which continuously occur in nature, sometimes accelerating in epochs of biosphere restructuring, sometimes slowing down in epochs of stabilization climate. Speciation processes occur very slowly. So, for example, for the division of a parent species into two daughter species, if there is a barrier between the two populations that does not allow individuals of these two populations to interbreed with each other, nature requires at least 500 thousand years, and more often about 1 million years. Individual species in the biosphere can persist for 10 million years or more, practically unchanged during this time.

The fauna is an integral element of the natural environment and biological diversity of the Earth, a renewable natural resource, an important regulating and stabilizing component of the biosphere. The most important ecological function of animals is participation in the biotic cycle of substances and energy. The stability of the ecosystem is ensured primarily by animals, as the most mobile element.

For example, migratory fish, accumulating their biomass in the sea, go to spawn in the upper reaches of rivers and streams, where after spawning they die and become food for a large number of animal species (bears, wolves, many species of mustelids, many species of birds, not to mention hordes of invertebrates). These animals feed on fish and release their excrement in terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, matter from the sea migrates to land inland and here it is assimilated by plants and included in new chains of the biological cycle.

Stop entering the rivers of the Far East to spawn salmon fish, and in 5-10 years you can see how much the numbers of most animal species will change. The number of animal species will change, and, as a result, changes will begin in the vegetation cover. A decrease in the number of predatory animal species will lead to an increase in the number of herbivores. Having quickly undermined their food supply, herbivores will begin to die, and epizootics will spread among them. The number of herbivorous animals will decrease, and there will be no one to distribute the seeds of some species and eat the biomass of other plant species. In a word, when red fish stop entering the rivers in the Far East, a series of restructuring will begin in all parts of ecological systems hundreds and even thousands of kilometers away from the sea.

The famous ecologist B. Commoner spoke about the need for a thorough study of ecosystems and the consequences of hasty human actions, even if for well-intentioned purposes: everything is connected to everything; nature knows best.

It is important for people to preserve what exists in ecosystems that has stood the test of time. It is important to understand that it is historically, evolutionarily developed biodiversity that ensures the preservation and long-term functionality of the ecosystem.

There are different ways to preserve biodiversity:

• a) stabilization of the gene pool through the restoration of endangered species in artificial situations in nature;
• b) conservation of genetic material;
• c) regulation of economic use and trade agreements (Convention on Trade in Endangered Species, CiTES)
• d) protection of biotopes as part of landscape planning;
• e) agreement on migratory species, in particular the Bonn Convention.

Preserving existing species is preserving the sustainability of the ecosystem. More than 600 species of birds and about 120 species of mammals are at risk of extinction. And here environmental literacy, environmental responsibility, environmental education, and environmental culture of everyone come to the fore.

Which spread and live in various natural areas. Such biodiversity is not the same in different climatic conditions: some species adapt to the harsh conditions of the Arctic and tundra, others learn to survive in deserts and semi-deserts, others love the warmth of tropical latitudes, others inhabit forests, and others spread across the wide expanses of the steppe. That state of species which is this moment exists on Earth, formed over 4 billion years. However, one of them is the reduction of biodiversity. If it is not solved, then we will forever lose the world we know now.

Reasons for the decline in biodiversity

There are many reasons for the decline of animal and plant species, and all of them directly or indirectly come from people:

• expansion of the territories of settlements;
• regular emissions of harmful elements into the atmosphere;
• transformation of natural landscapes into agricultural sites;
• usage chemical substances in agriculture;
• pollution of water bodies and soil;
• construction of roads and position of communications;
• , requiring more food and territory for life;
• experiments on crossing plant and animal species;
• destruction of ecosystems;
• caused by people.

Of course, the list of reasons goes on. Whatever people do, they influence the reduction of habitats of flora and fauna. Accordingly, the life of animals changes, and some individuals, unable to survive, die prematurely, and the population size is significantly reduced, often leading to the complete extinction of the species. Approximately the same thing happens with plants.

The value of biodiversity

Biological diversity different forms life - animals, plants and microorganisms is valuable because it has genetic and economic, scientific and cultural, social and recreational, and most importantly - environmental significance. After all, the diversity of animals and plants makes up the natural world all around us, so it needs to be protected. People have already caused irreparable damage that cannot be repaired. For example, many species across the planet were destroyed:

Quagga

Silphium

Solving the problem of biodiversity conservation

In order to preserve biodiversity on earth, a lot of effort needs to be made. First of all, it is necessary that the governments of all countries pay special attention to this problem and protect natural objects from encroachments by different people. Also, work to preserve the world of flora and fauna is carried out by various international organizations, in particular Greenpeace and the UN.

Among the main measures that are being taken, it should be mentioned that zoologists and other specialists are fighting for every individual of an endangered species, creating nature reserves and natural parks where animals are monitored, creating conditions for them to live and increase populations. Plants are also artificially bred to expand their ranges and prevent valuable species from dying.
In addition, it is necessary to take measures to preserve forests, protect water bodies, soil and atmosphere from pollution, and apply them in production and everyday life. Most of all, the conservation of nature on the planet depends on ourselves, that is, on each person, because only we make the choice: kill an animal or save its life, cut down a tree or not, pick a flower or plant a new one. If each of us protects nature, the problem of biodiversity will be overcome.