Topic: Women philosophers in ancient times

Introduction

What was the role that women played in the history of philosophy? Why has this role remained largely unknown? The first of these questions is not so easy to answer. We do know, however, that in ancient times at least twenty-one women studied, wrote and/or taught philosophy. At least three of them, Hypatia of Alexandria (370-415 BC), Asclepigenia of Athens (c.375 BC), and Arete of Cyrene (c.350 BC) BC) were believed to have led, led, or co-directed schools of philosophy with men. These twenty-one ancient female philosophers were known to some of the consistently male philosophers, including Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristippus, and Proclus. Women are mentioned in the extant works or biographies of some of these philosophers, in earlier histories such as those written by Diogenes Laertius (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).

Why then were women removed from the historical canon of philosophy? Old learning can hardly explain these actions of men. Here, apparently, the point is in the characterization of the histories of philosophy. Information regarding male and female philosophers appears in the same sources: early compendiums and encyclopedias, medieval archival collections (especially in the Vatican), early modern professional journals maintained a correspondence of male and female philosophers. Perhaps this has nothing to do with the fact that the history of philosophy did not include mention of practicing women philosophers, but it is strange that female historians of philosophy are also unknown. In any case, there remains some prejudice on the part of men towards women philosophers, as well as silence regarding the contributions of women to philosophy in large chronological reference books on philosophy and philosophical encyclopedias. It is known that the ancients, acting out of prejudice, rarely taught girls in general, including philosophy; Medieval theologians acting out of prejudice rejected the existence of the very ability of women in the sphere of religious or philosophical management (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).

It seems obvious that the desire for wisdom is not the prerogative of a man, given to him by nature. The paths to wisdom are varied, just as the forms of love for it are varied. And, although usually men played the main role in search of metaphysical insights, among women there were always those whose adornment was, in the words of the apostle, “not external braiding of hair, not gold headdresses or elegance in clothing” (Dyomin R.N.)

Women philosophers of antiquity: destinies, ideas

Let's start from the beginning, with early Greek philosophy. According to one of the founders of the biographical genre in antiquity, Aristotle’s student Aristoxenus, who in his youth studied with the Pythagoreans and wrote a biography of Pythagoras that, unfortunately, has not reached our time, Pythagoras took his teaching from Themistoclea of ​​Delphi(Dyomin R.N. Petershule).

However, there is very little information about women philosophers, and their works are also scarce. However, more fragments have survived than the works themselves.

Plato includes two fragments: Socrates' account of Diotima of Mantinea's views on love (c. 415 BC), forms most of the Symposium; and one of the two remaining versions of Pericles' speech to the Athenians is the Sophist, which is traditionally believed to have been written by his wife Aspasia of Miletus (ca. 400 BC) (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).

Diotima of Mantinea was hetero. This outstanding woman gave ideas to Socrates and Plato. Her words were recognized as the wisest among male philosophers. For this Plato immortalized her in his Symposium. In Plato’s “Symposium,” Diotima says: “All people are pregnant, both physically and spiritually, and when they reach a certain age, our nature requires relief from the burden... It can only be resolved in the beautiful, but not in the ugly.” And he adds: “The intercourse of a man and a woman is such permission.” She believed that “every creative desire for goodness and beauty is generated by a thirst for the continuation of life. Every birth is a miracle, that is, a manifestation of the divine in man, including when it comes to the birth and formation of morality in us or the knowledge of the divine.”

According to legend, Diotima, whose name in Greek means “God-fearing,” in 429 BC. e., during an outbreak of plague, she begged for a reprieve of the disease for the Athenians and was made a priestess for this (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009, Losev A.F., Taho-Godi A.A., 1993)

Aspasia one of the first prominent women known in history. Second wife of Pericles, the greatest Athenian figure. Aspasia was not a native of Athens, so her marriage to Pericles was not considered legal. She was accused by the enemies of Pericles of disrespect for the gods and immorality. Acquitted only thanks to her husband's protection. Despite the fact that many talented people of that era (for example, Phidias ) admired her intelligence and beauty, her opponents ridiculed her as a hetaera (Modern dictionary-reference book, 2000). Aspasia was adored by Socrates and was introduced to her by Pericles, with whom he became friends. In Plato's dialogue Menexenus, Socrates reproduces Aspasia's speech. She had philosophical conversations with Socrates and Anaxagoras, discussed politics with Charinos, hygiene with Hippocrates, and aesthetics with Phidias. Her sophistication, wit, and depth of knowledge of this or that subject delighted her interlocutors. This was also noted by Socrates’ student Echinaeus. Plato noted that he, like Pericles, owes Aspasia the stimulation of mental activity in him (Mussky I.A., 2008, Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).

Macrina's neo-Caesarian views on the nature of the soul were recorded on her deathbed (around 379 BC) by her brother Gregory of Nyssa (brother of Basil the Great) in the Vita Makrinae (Life of Macrina) (Kolesnikov A.S., 2008).

Fragments of the great work of Aezaria from Lucania (ca.
350 BC), Theano of Croton (daughter of Leophron, native of Metapontus or Thurii, Pythagorean, wife of Carystus or Croton, or Brotinus the Pythagorean, wrote “On Pythagoras”, “On Virtue to Hippodamus of Thurii”, “Women’s Exhortations” ", "Sayings of the Pythagoreans" (Fragments of early Greek philosophers, 1989), Theano (Cretan, wife of Pythagoras, wrote "Philosophical Notes", "Sayings", a poem with epic verses; approximately 550 BC), Periktions I (mother Plato, about 450 BC), Phintias from Sparta (about 400 BC), Periktion II (about 300 BC) and Hypatia from Alexandria have also come down to us. They are among the twenty one of the famous ancient women philosophers (Kolesnikov A.S., 2009).

Pythagoras' wife Tiano, was a famous mathematician, physicist, physician, and philosopher. Moreover, after the death of Pythagoras, Tiano taught his school for another six years!

Tiano was born in 546 BC. Her father was either Pitonax of Crete or Milo of Croton. Some sources claim that Theano was the daughter of Brontinus, the successor of Pythagoras, or even the daughter of Pythagoras and the wife of Brontinus. Apparently, the confusion occurred partly because Tiano was 36 years younger than her husband, and partly because among the followers of Pythagoras there was another Tiano, also a mathematician and physicist.

Although Tiano was the first female student of Pythagoras, later there were many women in his school, both students and teachers (including Tiano herself). Since all of Pythagoras' students lived in a commune and published their works under the name of Pythagoras, today it seems impossible to determine who wrote what exactly.
Tiano's works on the principles of the golden ratio are definitely known. Some researchers even argue that the name of Pythagoras would never have gained such influence if not for the works of Tiano published after his death. In any case, it is to her work that there are references in the works of Diogenes and many famous manuscripts of those times.

It is not even known exactly how many children Pythagoras and Tiano had. Supposedly there were five of them. Three daughters (Damo, Maya and Arignote) became philosophers. One of the two sons became a mathematician.

Interestingly, the Pythagorean school existed seven generations before Plato, and there are references to it in Heraclitus, Plato, Herodotus and Aristotle himself. How did the latter, who argued about the underdevelopment of women compared to men, manage to “forget” the women who were part of the school of Pythagoras and the very specific works of his wife?

Gradually, the school of Pythagoras began to practically rule Croton, which most likely explains the lack of discrimination in the admission of students, unusual for that time. Most likely due to religious squabbles (the Egyptian Osiris was too revered on Croton), there was once a riot there, during which Pythagoras and several of his associates were killed and many were expelled.

Tiana ran a school that was scattered throughout Greece, which was more difficult than running a commune merged with the government.

Unfortunately, everything we know about Tiano’s works comes from references to them in other, later sources, and from there we also know descriptions of public debates that were fashionable in ancient times, in which Tiano took part. It is known that she, at a minimum, wrote such works as “The Life of Pythagoras”, “Cosmology”, “The Theorem of the Golden Section”, “The Theory of Numbers”, “The Structure of the Universe” and “On Goodness”.

Hypatia (Ipatia) of Alexandria( 370 (?) - 415 ) - female scientist Greek origin, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer.

Hypatia, daughter of Theon, spent her entire life in Alexandria, where she gained respect and honor as a philosopher and scientist. At that time, Alexandria, famous for its intellectual asceticism and at the same time the extremes of refined sensuality, was at the crossroads of cultural traditions (Fili K, 2002). Hypatia, who grew up in an intellectual environment and received an excellent education from her father, was close to Theon’s scientific interests. Therefore, it is not surprising that over time she becomes his closest employee. They say that she even surpassed her father, for, as Damascus writes, she was by nature “more talented and refined.”

Hypatia received her education under the guidance of her father,Theon of Alexandria, who was one of the scientistsAlexandria school(Stäckli, 1971).

Around 400 Hypatia was invited to lecture at the School of Alexandria, where she occupied one of the leading departments - the department of philosophy. Taught philosophy Plato and Aristotle ; She also taught mathematics and was involved in calculating astronomical tables. Wrote comments on essaysApollonius of Perga And Diophantus of Alexandria, which have not reached us. In her lectures, Hypatia was not limited to philosophy (which both during classical antiquity and the Hellenistic period remained the lot of the aristocracy), but also taught mathematics, including arithmetic, geometry, astronomy (which, based on Plato’s understanding of this science, Hypatia considered the pinnacle of knowledge) and music, i.e. disciplines that Boethius later called quadrivius. But still, the mathematical disciplines were considered by Hypatia only as steps leading to metaphysical knowledge. She saw her main task in exploring the mystery of existence (Fili, 2002).

Historian Socrates Scholasticcharacterizes Hypatia as follows: “She acquired such learning that she surpassed contemporary philosophers; was the successor to the Platonic school, which originated from Plato , and taught all philosophical sciences to those who wished. Therefore, those who wanted to study philosophy flocked to her from all sides. By her education, having a self-confidence worthy of respect, she appeared with modesty even in the face of rulers; and she did not put any shame in the fact that she appeared among men, for for her extraordinary modesty everyone respected her and marveled at her (Steckli, 1971)

Hypatia took part in Alexandrian city politics, having influence on the head of the city, the prefect Orestes . This circumstance caused constant friction with Bishop Kirill (later canonized), why the Christian community considered Hypatia guilty of the resulting turmoil. IN 415 a group of Egyptian Christians, supporters of Bishop Cyril, attacked Hypatia and killed her. Christian historianSocrates Scholasticblames Hypatia's death on "a certain Peter."Soon after Hypatia's death, many of her students left the city, which marked the beginning of the decline of Alexandria as a scientific center (Stäckli, 1971).

Description of work

What was the role that women played in the history of philosophy? Why has this role remained largely unknown? The first of these questions is not so easy to answer. We do know, however, that in ancient times at least twenty-one women studied, wrote and/or taught philosophy. At least three of them, Hypatia of Alexandria (370-415 BC), Asclepigenia of Athens (c.375 BC), and Arete of Cyrene (c.350 BC) BC) were believed to have led, led, or co-directed schools of philosophy with men. This

It was in Ancient Greece that the main canonical foundations of beauty were formed. The ideal of beauty is captured in many works of art of this era.

In Ancient Greece, the depiction of people for the first time acquired signs of art. There is no doubt that the famous sculptors of the ancient Greek gods were of ideal character. The marble sculpture of the goddess of beauty and love Aphrodite reflects Hellenic norms of beauty and harmony of the female body, thereby becoming the standard of the ideal body among the Greeks. This beauty was expressed in numbers: height 164 cm, chest circumference 86 cm, waist - 69 cm, hips - 93 cm. It is interesting to note that Praxiteles' model, the courtesan Phryne, was once brought to trial for vicious behavior. The judges recognized that such a perfect body could not be the receptacle of a sinful soul. And Phryne was released.

The cult of the body - these are the words that define the essence of the female ideal of beauty in Ancient Greece. A beautiful, proportional body is the dream of not only men, but also women of that era. Particular attention was paid to posture.

The knowledge of the ancient Greeks lost its mythological coloring and acquired the character of science, and, accordingly, they tried to explain beauty as a form of being. Pythagoras believed that beauty comes from harmony and proportion of sizes. He even looked for the corresponding numerical ratio. A face that could be divided into several equal parts (three or four) was considered beautiful. With three, the demarcation lines passed through the tip of the nose and the upper brow; with four - across the edge of the chin, along the edge of the upper lip, along the pupils, along the upper edge of the forehead and along the crown of the head.

According to the canons of Greek beauty, a beautiful face combined a straight nose, large eyes with a wide inter-century slit, arched edges of the eyelids; the distance between the eyes should have been no less than the size of one eye, and the mouth should have been one and a half times larger than the eye. Large bulging eyes were emphasized by a rounded eyebrow line. The beauty of the face was determined by the straight lines of the nose, chin, and low forehead, framed by curls of hair with a straight parting.

Aristotle said that beauty lies in a certain relationship between the parts of the whole, symmetry and orderliness, organic integrity. Vivid embodiments of the ideals of ancient beauty are the statues of Apollo and Artemis. Their bodies are young and perfect, their thoughts are noble.

A typical feature of Greek images is harmony of proportions, natural beauty, youth, partial or complete nudity of the body. Thus, the beauty of a woman at that time was expressed in the beauty of her body. But we must not forget that the Greeks depicted not women, but goddesses.

If you look at the picture of the real life of the Greeks, you can talk about the unenviable position of women in society. Wives were assigned the role of childbearing and housekeeping. Only hetaeras had human status - they were admired and sung in poetry. Perhaps it was their bodies that inspired the sculptors. Although it would be more accurate to say that the goddesses went to the Greeks from matriarchy. The complete dominance of patriarchy led to the fact that a woman was deprived of all her rights and lived to satisfy the needs of a man.

During the era of democracy in Athens, Greek women were ordered to be modest and stay at home. They did not abuse bright, saturated colors, as this was considered the privilege of women of easy virtue. When the society of Ancient Greece fell into decline (II-V centuries AD), Greek women began to actively use cosmetics and go out in this form.

Most women wanted to have ash or golden hair. The heavy and thick hair of Greek women was skillfully tied up with great ingenuity into knots at the back of the head, and their hairstyles were decorated with tiaras, beads, hoops and ribbons. The decoration of clothes and the style of clothes and hairstyles corresponded to the entire way of life of the Hellenes. We can get an idea of ​​the hairstyles of Greek women by looking at the works of art of the ancient Greeks: lush hair, curled into curls, parted in the middle, combed back from the forehead and sides and tied at the back of the head in a knot.

Beauty has always been deified by people, aroused admiration and inspired heroic deeds. Each era had its own idea of ​​female beauty, which evolved over time. The standard of female beauty has changed since the appearance of man on earth. Views of femininity and attractiveness were based on an unstable basis, which depended on religious and moral principles and the trends of cultural values. During the times of Ancient Greece, the beauty of the human body was elevated to almost a religious cult. She was worshiped, idolized and considered the greatest gift and talent.

The concept of beauty in a historical aspect

The ancient Greeks assessed the female body according to parameters close to modern ones. They considered beauty to be the highest manifestation of the generosity of the gods - a beautiful person, both man and woman, enjoyed no less popularity and respect than a famous commander or statesman. The most beautiful people formed a special stratum in society; they were highly respected and venerable inspirers of poets and creative people. Poems and songs were dedicated to them, sculptors sculpted statues of them.

Since the times of Ancient Greece, the history of the creation of one of the statues of the goddess of beauty and love - Aphrodite - has been preserved. It turns out that, one of the most talented creators of graceful sculptures of the human body, he made her in the image of his beloved. For this he was accused of blasphemy and summoned to court, because according to the laws of that time it was forbidden to sculpt gods from human images, and even more so to associate a goddess with a mortal woman. It was believed that the celestials could be angry with a person for such missteps, and in righteous anger destroy all the inhabitants of the city.

As a defense, the sculptor brought his beloved Phryne to court. Having undressed her in front of everyone present, Praxiteles asked why they were not happy with her body and believed that it was not divine? Convinced of the irresistibility of Phryne’s body, the judges were unable to make any arguments and were forced to release the master.

The concept of beauty among men was also clearly defined. An athletic, fit body was respected, because the Greeks were big supporters of a healthy lifestyle. Their role models were the Olympian gods - they were a priori considered an ideal to strive for. It was customary for young men to shave their faces clean and wear long wavy hair tied with a hoop or silk ribbon. As they grew older, they gained the right to wear a beard, and their hairstyle became shorter.

Aphrodite de Milo - the standard of female beauty

During the period of antiquity, an absolutely proportionate, athletic body was considered the ideal of attractiveness. For a woman, a great advantage was considered to be tall height, rounded shoulders, a wasp waist, a slightly widened pelvis, a vertical abdominal line (flat, toned stomach) and slender legs. The combination of blond hair, blue eyes, a straight nose with a small hump and a high forehead was considered very beautiful. Another famous statue, Aphrodite de Milo, falls under this description. She was the ideal of beauty and personified the highest perfection of nature. The statue depicts a slender woman with a graceful posture. Her height is 164 cm, and the volumes of her chest, waist and hips are 86, 69 and 93 cm, respectively. The Greeks paid great attention to the symmetry and proportionality of the face.

The impeccably beautiful face could be roughly divided into three even parts along the lines of the eyebrows and the tip of the nose. Blondes with blue eyes and whose hair was collected in an elegant, low bun were considered beautiful.

In search of an ideal standard of beauty, the Greeks tried to apply a scientific approach, which turned out to be quite fair. But, besides this, the study of the impeccability of the female body laid the foundation for new concepts and directions, such as harmony and aesthetics.

In accordance with the main canons that define the Greek idea of ​​beauty, a woman with a straight nose, large, wide open eyes, the distance between which should be at least the size of one eye, was considered attractive. The size of the eyes was skillfully emphasized by the rounded arches of the eyebrows. All this splendor was framed by the smooth lines of the nose, chin and low forehead. The hair was not cut, but was styled in a neat hairstyle, tied with a silk ribbon at the back of the head. Even to this day, this technique is used in hairdressing, and is called the “antique knot.”

Given the Greeks' love of geometry and mathematics, all parameters were attractive and were precisely defined in terms of proportions. Painters and sculptors developed personal canons and modules, using them in their creations.

It should be noted that it was not customary for the ancient Greeks to depict a completely naked female body - this was considered obscene and degrading to a woman’s dignity. Most sculptures are only partially exposed, and are covered with design elements carved from stone - imitation fabric drapery, parts of clothing, etc. Aphrodite de Milo and Aphrodite of Praxiteles are quite rare exceptions to this rule. In order to avoid their reputation as obscene works of art, the statues depict women preparing to bathe - this is how their authors managed to avoid public condemnation.

Beauty for all time

Female beauty has been revered at all times by all peoples, but the attitude of the Greeks towards it has always been special. It was they who gave beauty the character of a cult. One Greek sage and poet, before his death, called his daughters and gave them life advice. It said that a woman can be smart (if she needs it), kind (if she wants), but she must always be beautiful. This life credo is still relevant today.

Greek standard of female beauty is in many ways similar to modern ideas about the attractiveness and impeccability of the female body. During the time of the Olympian gods, natural beauty was valued, and decorative cosmetics were practically not used. The body had to be fit, slender and athletic, which is no less valued today. Of course, every woman does not have to be a blue-eyed blonde with the proportions of Venus or Aphrodite to represent the standard of beauty. But a woman should try to live in harmony with her body, emphasizing its advantages.

In ancient culture there was a separate concept to denote beauty - kalokagathia. It highlighted a special, harmonious combination of a person’s external beauty and his moral virtues. The Greeks believed that a beautiful person by default could not be evil or bad, since the gods awarded attractive features only to the worthy.

The cult of female beauty was so firmly entrenched in the minds of people of antiquity that with the advent of Christianity, which promoted modesty and detachment from everything bodily, a fierce struggle began against all manifestations of femininity. Beautiful Greek and Roman statues were destroyed, ancient books and scrolls were burned. During the rampage of the Inquisition, a beautiful woman could easily be suspected of collaborating with the devil. Only with the beginning of the Renaissance, the cult of harmony and naturalness began to return.

How do Greeks now imagine an ideal woman?

Modern Greeks are only partially descendants of the ancient Hellenes who inhabited this territory many centuries ago. For more than two millennia, a mixture of different peoples took place - many immigrants from the East and northern Africa arrived on the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, which entailed a change in the national composition. Today's Greeks belong to the nationalities of the southern type, and are distinguished by their hot-tempered temperament, good sense of humor and friendliness. In women, they value, first of all, intelligence and the ability to make a man laugh. Unlike their neighbors from Turkey, the Greeks show respect for women and consider them their equals.

Greek attitude to beauty has evolved over many centuries, but the concepts of aesthetics and spiritual attractiveness have always been at the forefront. A woman and a man, according to ancient philosophers, were one whole and should harmoniously complement each other in all respects.

Philosophy and tourism in Greece

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Epidaurus - ancient city

is located 8 km northeast of the Sanctuary of Asclepius, on the territory of the modern Municipality of ancient Epidaurus, on the shores of the Saronic Gulf. Traces of habitation on the territory of the port, where the city of Epidaurus later developed, lead us to the 2-3 millennium BC. Shaft tombs from the Mycenaean period have been discovered on Katarahi Hill.

Athens - tips for tourists

Not far from Sparta is the medieval city of Mystras. During the late Byzantine Empire it was an important cultural and political center. In the period from 1249 to 1262, Mystras was the center of the Achaean Principality, and later the capital of the Morean Despotate.

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