The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights put the country on the brink of destruction.

Literature of the XIII century

characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. Chronicle stories about the battle on the r. Kalke "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu" (XIV century), "The Legend of Kitezh."

The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, plunged into Lake Svetloyar and thus saved from ruin by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle took shape over the course of many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer "Book, the verb chronicler" (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century.

the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are revived and new cities-centers of economic life and culture develop.

Moscow is leading the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence is growing as one of the cultural centers.

The most outstanding work of that time "Zadonshchina" (behind the Don) is dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo field.

This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephany in the 80s. XIV century. The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in "The Lay of Igor's Host."

Victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of Igor Svyatoslavovich's troops. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities that were less politically dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongol period (cultural continuity).

They used masonry of rough hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry gave the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I.E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art as follows: "The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength."

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Pole (1352).

Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one head.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was carried out.

The Faceted Chamber was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302 a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Pskov was another major economic and cultural center at that time. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is austere and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The walls of the large stone Kremlin were nine kilometers long.

Pskov masters won great fame in Russia and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly being built and expanded.

Construction was carried out in other cities as well. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new trend in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubicity" and create a new, upward-directed composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of the vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries.

as well as architecture, it became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongol period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco painting was widespread - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water.

In the XIV century. fresco painting is formed compositionally, a landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. is occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c.

1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow.

Under him, the Moscow school of painting reached its zenith. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​harmony and harmony, the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the Trinity icon.

In this masterpiece, we see the expression of the deep humanistic idea of ​​harmony and humanity, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th – 16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of the Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a unified Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are gaining strength in Russian culture.

In the literature, there are works that support the new state policy.

The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origin from the Roman emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which, moreover, linked it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome".

The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on the rise in the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and clerks. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the emergence typography. The first attempts at it date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553.

V 1563 g. was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time - a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings".

These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honor of each saint.

Generalizing chronicle works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle Code - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

The Monument of Russian historical literature is also the Book of Degrees, compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrey. It sets out Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The code of everyday rules and instructions contains “ Domostroy».

He defended the patriarchal order in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal, etc.

Architecture of the 15th - 16th centuries reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage begins in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which was finally formed in the late 15th - early 16th centuries.

At this time, brick began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495 the white-stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479 the new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489 the Annunciation Cathedral was built - the house church of the great dukes.

In 1505 - 1508

the Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a burial vault where all the great dukes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (up to Peter I).

In the Moscow Kremlin, secular buildings were also erected, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

Culture and life of Russia at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.

was the construction of the temple tent type, in which the national originality of Russian traditions was most clearly expressed. An example of a tent-roofed temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555 - 1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. the "fortress building" was on a huge scale.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then White City).

These works were supervised by the famous master Fyodor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

The range of painting topics is gradually expanding, interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.

S. Likhachev, “from all periods of the history of Russian culture, it is the 15th - 16th centuries. are especially important. It was then that the restoration of the interrupted process of creating a single state and the revival of culture take place ... "

Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries

Cultural development of Russia in the 16th century was determined by factors common to all European peoples: the design of national states, linguistic and ethnic consolidation, the formation of common national styles in art. The spiritual life of society was still determined by the Christian worldview.

1. Features of Russian culture of the 16th century.

1.1. The process has intensified fusion of local cultural traditions and the formation on the basis of their synthesis of a single national Russian culture.

1.2. Formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture.

The need to strengthen the internal and foreign policy position of the state led to an unprecedented increase in state needs for the development of various areas of material and spiritual culture.

1.3. An important role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church was played by Stoglavy Cathedral 1551, who tried regulate the art.

Creativity was proclaimed as a model in painting Rublev, from the point of view of its iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, and the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, Metropolitan Macarius and his mug.

By limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglav Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

1.4. Despite the preservation of the dominant positions of the Church, from the XVI century.

in Russian culture, more tangible than before, begin to manifest secular and democratic elements.

1.5. The formation of domestic culture in the context of the struggle against foreign conquerors predetermined a high degree of patriotism, predominance heroic themes and pronounced freedom-loving tendencies.

The formation of a single centralized state, linguistic and ethnic consolidation did not lead to the destruction of the cultural identity of numerous nationalities, on the basis of which a single Great Russian was formed.

The synthesis of cultures of different peoples was organically combined with the preservation of many features of the local material and spiritual culture. The culture of the new state was clearly multinational character.

2. LITERACY AND EDUCATION. BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING.

1. The development of the apparatus of power and international relations in connection with the formation of a single centralized state, the strengthening of the church and the further development of crafts and trade caused growing demand for literate people.

2.2. On a nationwide scale education it was still initial, was of a church nature and was accessible only to a select few. Literacy was spread primarily among the feudal lords, clergy and merchants.

2.2.1. The most widespread was teaching at monasteries.

2.2.2. People of the clergy usually taught at home and in private schools; secular literacy masters were extremely rare.

Theological disciplines formed the basis of any educational process. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic.

2.2.4. Usually liturgical books were used as teaching aids, only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetic appear.

2.3. Development of writing was accompanied by a change in the very technique of writing, adapting to the increased demand for books and all kinds of documents.

Culture of Russia 15 - 16 centuries

2.3.1. The main material for writing was paper, which began to be used in the XIV century. They brought her from Italy, France, German states, Poland.

2.3.2. The dominant type of writing finally becomes the one that appeared in the 15th century. cursive - fluent, expedited writing.

2.4. The expensive and time-consuming process of making handwritten books no longer satisfied the increased demand for them.

An important milestone in the development of Russian culture was the emergence typography, the beginning of which dates back to 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated. Therefore, the beginning of book printing is often considered 1563, when a printing house was created in Moscow at the expense of the tsarist treasury. Led it Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian dated book was published - Apostle, and in 1565 - Book of Hours- a collection of daily prayers. Along with religious books, the first Russian was published by typographic method. primer(in 1574

in Lviv), but only during the sixteenth century. 20 books have been published. The leading place was still occupied by the handwritten book.

3. LITERATURE AND PUBLIC AND POLITICAL THOUGHT

New socio-political conditions led to the advancement of new problems. Much attention in Russian literature began to be paid to the issues of autocratic power, the place and significance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres.

At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

3.1. Still continued to evolve chronicle, subordinate henceforth to a single center and a single goal - to strengthen the Russian centralized state, the authority of the tsarist and ecclesiastical authorities.

The chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish tsarist power in Russia. Degree book contains portraits arranged in 17 degrees and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. Facial annalistic set (Nikon Chronicle) represents a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

They were further developed historical stories, in which, as before, the heroic theme prevailed: Kazan capture, On the walk of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov and etc.

3.3. Significant changes are undergoing travel literature. Secular motives are strengthening, fictional stories are increasingly included in the description of travel.

New genre varieties of travel notes are being formed - stories of Russian ambassadors (article lists, murals), unsubscribes from explorers.

3.4. A characteristic feature of the development of literature of this period is the emergence and rapid development of journalism, which reflected the development of socio-political thought, the emergence of ideological and philosophical polemics.

The first literary and publicistic works supported and substantiated the new state policy. V Legends about the princes of Vladimir and Legends about Vladimir Monomakh found its expression, which originated at the end of the 15th century.

the concept of the hereditary relationship of Russian sovereigns with the Byzantine and Roman emperors. This idea was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. In the letters of Hegumen Philotheus to the Grand Duke Vasily III, the thesis was finally formulated Moscow is the third Rome, which became the ideological doctrine of the Russian autocracy.

Talented Russian publicist Ivan Peresvetov in their works The Legend of Tsar Constantine, Legend of Mohammed-Saltan and others outlined their program of transformations in the country. He saw the ideal of state structure in a strong autocratic power, based on the local nobility.

Peresvetov advocated the rise of people according to merit, and not according to wealth and nobility.

3.4.3. An interesting publicistic legacy was left by an associate of Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrey Kurbsky... In his writings ( The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow and others) Kurbsky advocated limiting the power of the tsar.

The famous correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, in which they argue about the ways of development of Russia, about the relationship of the monarch with his subjects.

A kind of encyclopedia of household and moral norms of the XVI century. is compiled with the participation of a statesman from the time of Ivan the Terrible, Archpriest SylvesterDomostroy - a moral textbook that determined the behavior of a person, his duties in the family and society.

These rules later became a classic example of the patriarchal way of life in the family, but at that time it contained revolutionary norms, emphasizing the soul-saving nature of labor, giving a higher assessment of a woman at that time, etc.

3.6. Among the literary monuments of the XVI century. it is impossible not to mention the 13-volume collection of church literature Chetya-Minea(Readings monthly) - compiled Metropolitan Macarius and his students a list of all hagiographic literature and all works of Russian medieval writing approved by the Orthodox Church.

ARCHITECTURE

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growth of the international authority of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of Russian and European architecture.

Many monuments of the late 15th-16th centuries. are outstanding achievements of not only Russian, but also world architecture.

4.1. Completion of the construction of the ensemble Moscow Kremlin was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Not only the best domestic, but also Italian masters took part in its creation: Pietro Antonio Solari, Aristotle Fioravanti, Mark Fryazin, Aleviz New.

In the years 1485-1495. powerful brick walls and towers were erected around the Kremlin, decorated with teeth in the form of swallow tails characteristic of Italian serf architecture - merlons.

At the same time, an architectural ensemble was formed Cathedral Square.

- A classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century. became Assumption Cathedral(1475-1479) - a cathedral built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, but much larger in size.

- During construction Archangel Cathedral(1506-1508), which was before the beginning of the eighteenth century.

the burial vault of Moscow princes and kings, the architect Aleviz Novy combined the traditional cross-domed structure of a five-domed six-pillar temple with the rich architectural decor of the Italian Renaissance.

- The Pskov masters built a nine-domed Blagoveshchensky cathedral(1484-1489) - the house church of the Russian great dukes and tsars; and Church of the Deposition of the Robe(1484-1489) - the house church of the Russian metropolitans.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them Princely palace, consisting of several interconnected buildings. From this palace has survived Faceted Chamber(1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin.

The architectural center of the Kremlin ensemble is Ivan the Great belltower, built in 1505-1508.

and built on in 1600.

The Moscow Kremlin has become a symbol of the greatness and power of the capital of the centralized Russian state.

4.2. In the XVI century. five-domed cross-domed churches were built on the model of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in almost all Russian monasteries and the main cathedrals of a number of large Russian cities.

Most famous Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

4.3. The flourishing of Russian architecture was also manifested in the emergence of a new style - tent construction based on the national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, painting.

In contrast to the cross-domed temples, hipped roofs do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation.

One of the first monuments of this style is Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye built in 1532

by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of hipped roof architecture - Intercession Cathedral, named at the end of the century St. Basil's Cathedral named after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its side-chapels.

The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barmoy and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by the Russian troops .

Hip-roof temples were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Widespread in the XVI century. received the construction of small stone or wood Posad temples. They were the centers of craft settlements and were dedicated to the saint who patronized this craft.

These buildings practically did not reach us.

4.5. V XVI century there was a rise fortress (fortification) construction.

The construction of fortresses took on an enormous scale. The Kremlin were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities.

In Moscow, the brick walls of the Moscow Kremlin were built, which had 20 towers (1516). In 1535-1538. Italian architect Petrok Small the second line of fortifications was erected, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital, - China town. In 1585-1593.

under the supervision of the city master Fedor Horse, the third line of stone fortifications of Moscow was built - White City(now the Boulevard Ring). At the end of the XVI century.

in connection with the raids of the Crimean Tatars, the last line of the external fortification of Moscow was built - wooden walls on the Earthen shaft(now the Garden Ring).

5. FINE ARTS

The visual arts developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the erasure of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable increase in secular elements.

Iconography.

5.1.1. In icon painting dominated Moscow school, formed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and which became the basis of the general Russian national icon painting school.

5.1.2. Icon painters of township cities more and more often deviated from classical norms, there was a greater variety in plots and colors, elements of everyday life appear.

Icons became widespread of the Theotokos cycle Rejoices about you, which testifies to the special role assigned to the people's consciousness of the Mother of God.

5.1.3. From the end of the 15th century. The fine arts are characterized by an increasing interest in real historical figures and events, the range of painting topics is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this tendency, the clergy tried to take control of its development.

Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed to depict on icons the faces of kings, princes, and also being a letter, those. historical plots. This decision contributed to the development of the genre historical portrait.

On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors are side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. The golden chamber of the royal palace(the frescoes have not survived).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius , continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. His brushes belong to the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503).

5.2. Significant changes have undergone book miniature... Replacing parchment with paper affected her technique and color. The new miniatures were no longer like enamel or mosaics, but like watercolors. The characteristic features of the book miniature are the image of everyday scenes, the versatility of the composition.

The development of art was regulated by the church and the state: workshops were organized, canons of icon painting were established, special decisions were made at church Councils about the permissibility of depicting individual characters and historical events.

The growth of cities and urban settlements, the development of handicrafts contributed to the further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow.

The best artisans united in the royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were very diverse: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, chasing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel and others. Outstanding success was achieved by artistic embroidery, in which, instead of silk threads, gold and silver were used, pearls and precious stones were widely used.

The best examples of gold and silver work are kept in the Kremlin's Armory.

6. RESULTS

7.1. In the XVI century. despite the contradictory nature of the evolution of Russian statehood, culture continued to develop, reflecting both the process of centralization and the problems of the second half of the century.

7.2. The formation of common styles in art and common trends in the cultural life of the country is taking place.

7.3. During this period, foundation of multinational Russian culture.

A tendency has arisen to secularization culture: realistic features appeared in works of art.

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Russian culture of the late 15-16 centuries.

2. Folklore.

The leading theme of the UNT continued to be the theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies. In this regard, the epics of the Kiev cycle were revised and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

Historical songs became one of the most widespread genres of oral folk art in the 16th century.

The songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

Ivan the Terrible became one of the heroes of the UNT. His image in folk art is very contradictory.

There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character are noted. Malyuta Skuratov became a negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by the cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore the active active popular masses are depicted.

Ermak became the embodiment of the popular ideal of the struggle against the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a really achievable ideal.

3.Education and typography.

With the development of feudal economy, crafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased.

The church also needed them. Education was limited to mastering elementary literacy. The great achievement of Russian culture in the mid-16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered the science under the name of anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown.

The print quality amazes with its strict artistic design and the absence of typos.

In total, until the end of the 16th century, about 20 books were published, all of church-religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries the printed book could supplant the handwritten one.

Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real publicistic works appeared in the form of letters and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. In the 16th century, chronicle writing continued to develop. The works of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish tsarist power in Russia.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge collection of chronicles - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the chronicle, historical stories were further developed, which told about the events of that time - "Kazan capture", "About the arrival of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov", "History of the Kazan kingdom".

The most striking example of the genre genre of the 16th century was "Domostroy", i.

e. home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, raising children. Its author was presumably the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation, Sylvester.

Culture of Russia XV-XVI centuries

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4. Architecture and painting.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture. An innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects had invented a new system of brick floors - a cross vault, resting not on internal pillars, but on external walls.

Such small churches were built in the villages (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped-roof temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

Painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-ecclesiastical topics from the world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, the allegorical nature of the plots is a distinctive feature of the fine arts of the 16th century.

With an increase in interest in historical themes, the development of the genre of historical portraiture is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the Stroganov school appeared. She focused on her own painting technique. Distinctive features were: mastery of external performance (the desire to portray the special refined beauty of figures, clothing), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters begin to sign their works for the first time.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but affect the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were applied in stone architecture.

Fortifications, fortresses were restored, and kremlin were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures is the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560).

Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the hip-roof style, which was widespread at that time (typical for wooden temples of Ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and the White City in Moscow was surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To painting of the 16th century. in Russia it is mainly icon painting.

The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The most striking monument of icon painting was the "Militant Church".

The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, one could feel the influence of the West. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Typography

In the 16th century. the first printing house appeared in Russia, printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, even though their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556.

By the "anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism.

Literature of Russia of the 16th century includes "Stories of the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Menaei", containing all revered in Russia works for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection, faded into the background) ...

In the 16th century. in Russia, boyars' clothes, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments.

Such costumes lent pomp and majesty to the image.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Russia, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a woman's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions, a shirt, a kitsch and a poneva skirt.

Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun linen (up to mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.

Time of Troubles Russia at the turn of 16-17 centuries
The beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries.

Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian war and Tatar invasion, as well as oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

The first period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fyodor came to power, but he was unable to rule.

In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov... Ultimately, his policies provoked the discontent of the popular masses.

Trouble began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry I (in reality - Grigory Otrepiev), supposedly miraculously surviving son of Ivan the Terrible.

He lured over to his side a significant part of the Russian population. In 1605, False Dmitry 1 was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused the discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. On May 17, 1606, False Dmitry I was killed, V.I.

Shuisky on the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second period of Troubles

an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the militants included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow, they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Discontent with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd.

In January 1608, his army went to Moscow. By June, False Dmitry 2 entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes they even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began aggressive military actions.

False Dmitry 2 fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. An interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars).

Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish invaders, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry II, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third period of Troubles

The third stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders.

After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war acquired a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The Time of Troubles is over.

Zemsky Cathedral appointed king Mikhail Romanov.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries.

It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17.Russia after the Troubles, the first novels on the throne.

Culture of Russia in the 16th century: main directions

Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler of the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor.

It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and the Prince of Sweden Karl-Philip also claimed the throne of Russia.

Mother Mikhail and the future ruler himself were after the liberation of Minin and Pozharsky of Moscow and stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch.

In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles tried to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Mikhail who was in the monastery, sending a whole detachment for this. But, all Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the economic life of the country gradually began to improve.

In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of the treaty with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing the Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, the prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Around the same period, to protect against the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of notch features appeared in the South of Russia.

The Cossacks took an active part in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the other hand, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of the townspeople was noticeably increased.

This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the newly formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.

Project activities in the history lesson. Educational and project activities contribute to the formation of a student who has a set of skills and abilities of independent constructive work, who owns the methods of purposeful activity, is ready for cooperation and interaction, endowed with the experience of self-education.

"Kislyakova"

PROJECT

Prepared

student of grade 10 B

Kislyakova Victoria

MBUSOSH # 1, settlement Bashmakova

“Education and scientific knowledge "

At the turn of the 15-16 centuries. the process of the formation of a unified Russian state was completed, the country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. This had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes. The general Russian culture of this period was completely subordinated to the service of the "sovereign's cause". Literature and public life, architecture and even painting are permeated with concerns for the Russian state.

The emergence of book printing in Russia

In the 50s of the 16th century, the first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, founded in the house of the priest Sylvester, a minister of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral and one of the leaders of the "Chosen Rada" - a council under the then young then 20-year-old Ivan IV the Terrible. The books of this printing house have no imprint, which states the time and place of publication, the name of the owner and the printer. Known unnamed books of seven titles: narrow-type "Four Gospels", "Lenten Triode", medium-type "Psalter", "Color Triode", wide-type "Four Gospels" and wide-type "Psalter".

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia grew rapidly. The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - over 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. The merchants needed education.

The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on the difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which after his return were included in the chronicle.

Architecture

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a new type of temple began to spread, reflecting the democratic needs of the townspeople. The greatest conquest of architectural thought of the 16th century, one of the highest achievements of all ancient Russian architecture, are hipped-roof temples - pillar-like structures with an unprecedented structure of the top, as in wooden architecture.

This era was characterized by a significant rise in the art of building. At the turn of the 15-16 centuries. the Kremlin ensemble is being formed in Moscow - walls and towers, a method and the Faceted Chamber. They were built by Italian architects (Aristotle Fiorovanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Rufo)

(Tsar John Vasilievich and Aristotle Fioravanti) (Marko Rufo)

Archangel Cathedral (1505 - 1508)

Architect Aleviz Novy.
This Italian architect erected a very impressive creation, which became the tomb of the great dukes. At the same time, the Archangel Cathedral is distinguished by its grace and elegance. The building is based on the traditional cross-domed system. But the architect decorated the facade very splendidly. For this, he used the motives of the Renaissance order architecture of Venice. An intricate cornice divided the building into two floors. Semicircular zakomaras are beautifully decorated with Venetian shells. This detail will become extremely popular in Russian architecture. In general, the Archangel Cathedral resembles an Italian palazzo.

V
In 1485, the reconstruction of the walls and towers of the Kremlin began . Work continued until 1516. We see the Kremlin today exactly as it was built under Ivan III. The purpose of the Kremlin restructuring was to create a powerful fortress. Foreign craftsmen managed to create a defense complex in the spirit of Russian national traditions. They adhered to the plan of the old fortress of Dmitry Donskoy, preserving the tower silhouette of the fortress.
The walls were topped with dovetail-like battlements. Inside the walls there is a deaf arcade, there are battlegrounds. The towers served the purpose of gunfight and tracking and shelling the enemy from a height. Corner towers are round or polygonal for a wide view and all-round combat. Intermediate wall towers are rectangular. Travel cards three: Spasskaya, Troitskaya and Borovitskaya. In those days, the Kremlin was turned into an island, ditches were dug in front of it, there were hinged bridges.

Painting

The talents of the Russian people extend not only to wooden or white stone architecture. As they say, a talented person is talented in everything. Painting is no exception - the exposition presents to your the collection of preserved ancient Russian painting. The exposition is based on icons of the 15-16th centuries from the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. During this period, Russian painting reached its peak. The icons "Our Lady of Tolgskaya Podkubenskaya", "Annunciation", "Metropolitan Alexy", marked by a special spirituality of images and grace of plastic language, came out from under the brushes of the masters of Suzdal. The "Pokrov" icon is a true masterpiece. The image of the Mother of God, overshadowing the people with her veil, is consonant with the idea of ​​her special patronage of Russia.

The exposition opens with the icon "Our Lady of Tenderness", which dates back to the 14th century. This is a very expressive and striking work. The icons of this time are rare, since the difficult period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion took away countless monuments of Russian culture.

Stroganov school of icon painting (or "Stroganov letters") - the Russian school of icon painting, which took shape at the end of the 16th century. It got its name from the rich salt merchants Stroganovs

Peculiarities

virtuoso drawing

fractional and fine elaboration of details

shining and clean paints

multi-figure compositions

landscape panoramas

Andrey Rublev

ANDREY RUBLEV, Russian artist of the late 14th - first third of the 15th century, creator of frescoes, icons, miniatures; reverend (canonized in 1988, commemorated July 17). He was famous during his lifetime, famous after his death (sources of the 1430-1460s), especially glorified from the end of the 15th century ("Announcement ..." by Joseph Volotsky); in the 16th century, his works become obligatory role models (resolution of the Stoglav Cathedral in 1551. Of the works of Andrei Rublev indicated in the sources, very few have survived: frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the famous icon "Trinity" from the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity Monastery. Of the two dates for the writing of the Trinity suggested by the sources - 1411 and 1425-27 - the latter seems to be more probable. Other works listed by the sources either have not survived, or do not belong to Andrei Rublev, but to students - members of an artel headed by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev (iconostases of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity Monastery).

).

Everyday life

Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with different outbuildings, residential and economic, for themselves, courtyards, cattle and poultry.
The houses were mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with utensils of silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). There were sometimes clocks on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, adornments, dishes, clothes; oriental footwear, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - peasants - lived in wooden huts, covered with straw or shit; there were cages for property, cattle sheds, sheds. The huts were drowned in black, lit with torches. In winter, small livestock and poultry were placed in them.

Clothes of the XIII - XV centuries

In the 15th century, a serious influence of Eastern culture is felt in Russia, rich trade relations affect the appearance of the Russian wardrobe. Shirts without a heap are replaced by "kosovorotki".

In Muscovite Russia, clothes had the same cut for the rich and the poor, differing only in the quality of the material.

Costumes of Russia XIII - XV centuries

For the decorative solution of caftans, expensive patterned fabrics, trimming with buttonholes on the chest and along the side cuts were used; metal, wooden, braided from a cord and pearl buttons, a high richly embroidered trump collar, edging of the side, neckline, bottom of the product and the bottom of the sleeves with multi-colored braid or braid with gold and silver.

View document content
"Gardener (2)"

Project

"Russian culture to the XV -XVI century."

Prepared by:

Ogorodnik Lena

10 "B" class

MBUSOSH No. 1 p. settlement Bashmakovo 2014

Education

Ivan Fedorov is a pioneer printer, he casted fonts himself, was a typesetter, a clerk (proofreader), he himself drew illustrations and engraved.

AND In 1553, van IV decided to set up a book printing in Moscow. For the premises of the printing house, the Tsar ordered to rebuild special mansions near the Kremlin on Nikolskaya in the vicinity of the Nikolsky monastery. The printing yard was built at the expense of the Tsar himself. Nearly the work continued for a year, and finally, on March 1, 1564, the first book in Russia, "The Apostle", containing 267 sheets, came out from under the printing press. The printers tried to preserve all the features of the manuscript in it. The font reproduces a handwritten letter, the first letter of each chapter is highlighted in red. The beginning of the chapter is decorated with headpieces - ornaments on which vines with cedar cones are intertwined. Of course, the "Apostle" was still very expensive.

V at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia was growing. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. But in the old Russian schools of the late 15th - 16th centuries, only elementary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the Psalter “and other divine books”. Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. The rest of the education was received not in schools, but in communication with knowledgeable people and "versatile" reading of books.

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and geometry textbooks dates back to the second half of the 16th century. In the textbook on geometry to scribes, "with the attachment of surveying drawings", contained information on the calculation of the areas of geometric figures. Calculations for measuring areas are included in the works of Ermolai-Erasmus.

P
ears with the bright names "Flying Serpent" and "Falcon", "Lion's Head" have been known since the time of the siege of Kazan. Andrey Chokhov stands out among the foundry masters of the late 16th century. His works are noted for their large size, beauty of form and technical perfection. the work - "Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin. Its weight is 40 tons, barrel diameter is 89 centimeters. There were no other such cannons.

No less complex calculations were demonstrated by the gigantic hydraulic structures of the Solovetsky Monastery. A system of canals connected several dozen lakes.

V
The ethnographic and geographical representations of the Russian people were changing more decisively. The first Russian encyclopedias, the so-called "Azbukovniki", contain information about the western and some eastern regions. Cartography developed: schemes of many lands of the Russian kingdom were drawn up.

The books "herbalists" and "medical books" give an idea of ​​the development of biological and medical knowledge. Herbalists included a detailed description of the plants, indicated their medicinal qualities, and reported the methods of their use. V Xvi century, several Russian translations of Polish medical books were made.

ARCHITECTURE

O
the main building material for end architectsXv - Xvi centuries were wood and stone. The forms and structures of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purposes.

B The Stroganov temples in Solvychegodsk were very famous. They were built in 1565 and existed until 1798. It was a three-story palace, the majestic appearance and size of which amazed those who saw it. The mansions consisted of a row of log cabins with two quadrangular towers.

But the clearest idea of ​​wooden architecture is given by the surviving temples. Two buildings - the Church of the Deposition of the Robe in the village of Borodavy (Vologda Oblast) in 1486 and Georgievsky in the village of Yuksovichi (Leningrad Oblast) in 1493 - characterize the main trend of this type of architecture: the transformation of the original church-hut into a more complex church building

B
The flattering skills of 16th century wood-breeders were used to solve a complex engineering problem. In a short time, it was necessary to build the Sviyazhsk wooden fortress, which created the most important bridgehead for the defeat of the Kazan Khanate. The strategic plan of Tsar Ivan the Terrible assumed the unexpectedness of her appearance in front of the enemy. Therefore, in one winter of 1550-1551, far from Kazan, in the estate of the Ushatykh in the Uglich district, a city with eighteen towers was built

TO

By the XV-XVI centuries, amenny architecture was entering a new period of its development. By the end of the 15th century, the trend of technical and technological complication of construction was supported by new cadres of architects and samples of churches, secular buildings that meet new norms and tasks. A whole group of Italian masters came to Moscow. These were talented specialists in defensive and fortifications: Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, two architects known as Aleviza and others. Their work in the Kremlin is mainly known: fortress towers and walls, the Faceted Chamber. Archangel Cathedral. By the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the Moscow Kremlin acquired the character of not only a military fortress, but also a symbol of the "reigning city", the center of the capital and Russian lands. Architects solved not only complex engineering, but also artistic and imaginative tasks.

AND The intensity of construction work has made it possible, over the course of a century, to acquire stone centers and estates for both the capital itself and other Russian cities: Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Vologda, etc., numerous monasteries: Vladimir, Suzdal, Vologda, Kirillov, Ferapontov, etc.

In 1555 - 1560, St. Basil's Cathedral was erected by architects Barma and Postnik.

P
The first most famous tent-roofed, pillar-like monument is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1530-1532).

The architecture of the end of the 16th century is guided by the samples of the capital's five-domed temples, but enhances their monumentality to severe massive laconicism. An example is St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda (1568 - 1570)

F PAINTING

The earliest icon - "Our Lady of Hodegetria"

Another famous icon of the 16th century, the so-called "Quadrapart" of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, is distinguished by its theological and dogmatic allegories. The "four-part" icon, together with three other icons ("The Last Judgment", "The Foundation of the Church of the Resurrection", "The Passion of the Lord in Gospel Parables") was painted by Pskov artists: Ostani, Yakov, Mikhail, Yakushka and Semyon Vysokiy Glagol.

By the 16th century, Moscow art acquired the character of a national affair. Provincial masters are summoned to the capital as needed. But even in these remote centers, icon-painting workshops are undergoing significant stylistic changes. Researchers talk about the emergence of new schools in Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. By the end of the 16th century, the original "Godunov" and "Stroganov" schools of painting were formed.

WITH troganovskayaschoolGodunovskayaschool

N
ARABIC CULTURE

R poison with the official regulated culture at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, there was a powerful stream of independent folk culture. The festive and playful, carnival and theatrical nature of this culture presupposed its manifestation in the forms of oral improvisation, transmission "from mouth to mouth", from generation to generation. But in the 16th century, people saw "pagan devilry" in traditional folk "games" and rituals. Significant efforts were made to eradicate "trash customs" - mermaids on Midsummer's Day, buffoonery games at "zhalniki" (cemeteries), etc.

P

The overwhelming majority of dwellings of that time were semi-earthen and ground (log cabins, standing on the ground) huts. The floors in them are earthen or wooden. Often there were basements - lower rooms for livestock and things. In this case, the hut itself, which stood above the basement, above (on the mountain), was called the upper room.

N
Some people, especially noble ones, had houses from several log cabins, with passages, stairs, porches, and carved decorations. Such buildings, primarily among princes and boyars, resembled palaces of a larger or smaller size.

R

The atmosphere in the house was also another element. Those who are poorer have wooden tables, benches, benches along the walls. The rich have the same objects, more stools covered with beautiful carvings and paintings; on them - pillows, rollers; small benches were placed at the feet. The huts were illuminated with torches, which were inserted into an oven crevice or a metal light. The well-to-do had tallow candles with candlesticks, wooden or metal, which stood on the tables. Sometimes there were silver "shandals", the same candlesticks, or lamps with vegetable oil.

TO nyazya, boyars, merchants wore long, toe-length clothes with embroidery and precious stones; the poor - in simple shirts with a belt, short clothes - made of homespun cloth, bleached canvas. In winter, the common people wore bearskin coats (“there’s no trouble walking, even though in a bear,” according to Nifont, the Novgorod bishop); his shoes are bast bast shoes. The rich have fur coats made of expensive furs, jackets, land plots, single rows for men; the same fur coats and fields, as well as kortels, letniki, telogrei - for women; all this - from foreign satin, velvet, damask, cloth; they were decorated with sables, stones, pearls. The monks also had a penchant for rich clothes.

The dishes of the poor are made of wood (barrel, pot, bucket, trough, bed - tray, chum - ladle, kosh - basket, cup, spoon), clay (pot, scoop, korchaga - large vessel); something, but not much - of iron and copper (boilers for cooking food, boiling water). The rich have the same objects, but more - metal, up to (the princes, boyars) gold and silver; moreover, it is more varied (except for the named ones - cups, broths, cups, salt shakers, dostakans, vinegar bowls, pepper shakers, mustard plasters; for wine drinking - turia horns in silver).

Common people ate mostly rye bread, the rich - from wheat. They ate millet (millet), peas, oats (they made cereals, jelly); from vegetables - cabbage, turnips, carrots, cucumbers, radishes, beets, onions, garlic, etc. Meat was more on the tables of the rich; the poor have fish. Dairy products, vegetable and animal oils were consumed. The salt was expensive. Drinks were made at home - bread kvass, beer, honey. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, currants, hazelnuts were used as a sweet "snack". The rich, the nobles ate more varied and abundant. To what has been named above, one can add game, which is rare in the diet of the poor; these are cranes, geese, quails, swans.

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"1 Project activities on the topic"

Project activities on the topic:

"Culture and life of Russia at the end of 15-16 centuries".

Objective of the project: to trace how the political processes taking place in the Russian state were reflected in the development of culture and the life of the people of the 16th century.

Tasks:

1) students get acquainted with the culture of the 15th -16th centuries, which helps to form an idea of ​​the main cultural monuments, life priorities of people of that time.

2) the development of logical thinking, the ability to analyze a historical document (literary monument), the development of skills in monologue speech.

3) Formation of interest in the history of the country and the life of a specific person of the past, interest in solving personally significant cognitive tasks.

Personal, metasubject and subject results of project activities

Personal

the formation of the foundations of the civic identity of the individual;

readiness for the transition to self-education based on educational and cognitive motivation, including the readiness to choose the direction of specialized education;

the formation of social competencies, including value-semantic attitudes and moral norms, experience of social and interpersonal relations, legal consciousness.

Metasubject

the ability and readiness to master systematic knowledge, to independently replenish it, transfer and integrate it;

ability to cooperate and communicate;

the ability to solve personally and socially significant problems and translate the solutions found into practice;

ability and willingness to use ICTs for learning and development;

the ability for self-organization, self-regulation and reflection.

Subject

the ability to solve educational-cognitive and educational-practical tasks based on the studied educational material, using methods of action that are relevant to the content of academic subjects.

Project work

1. Defining the goals and theme of the project.

Determining the topic, the research problem is also formulated. The topic defines the area of ​​study. ... Several problems can be formulated within the framework of one topic. Having determined the area of ​​research for yourself, and having formulated the problem, you should concretize the topic of an independent educational project:

When choosing a topic, remember the following:

1. This topic should be really interesting to you.

2. The results of your project activities should be of real practical value.

3. The material collected by you on the topic should be useful to other people interested in this issue.

2.Presentation of the project topic: preparing a presentation, that is, a brief information about the chosen topic, it is necessary to think over the answers to the following questions:

1. What is the scope of your research?

2. Where do you see the problem that needs to be solved?

3. Based on this, how will the wording of the topic sound?

4. What is the idea of ​​the project? What will the end result of your design be like?

5. How and by whom can this project be used in the future?

6. What help do you need?

Students' activities : discuss the subject of research with the teacher and receive additional information if necessary (if necessary, form working groups).

Teacher activities : introduces the meaning of the project approach, explains goals, motivates students.

3.Planning:

Analysis of the problem, identification of sources of information, determination of methods for collecting and analyzing information, setting tasks and choosing criteria for evaluating the results and the process, determining the way of presenting the result.

Students' activities: form tasks, clarify information (sources), choose and justify their criteria for success, establish an action plan.

Teacher activities: assists in analysis and synthesis, suggests ideas, makes suggestions, observes.

4. Making decisions: The purpose of information search is to quickly and timely find the necessary information useful in creating a specific project. To organize the search: the area of ​​interest is determined, the problem is formulated, a list of possible questions and keywords that are related to this problem is compiled, the types of publications are determined in which there can be reliable information on this problem.

As a result of familiarization with the literature, a card index or a list of useful publication sources is compiled. Based on the study of sources, a "bank of ideas" is compiled to resolve the problem.

Students' activities : work with information, conduct research, solve intermediate problems.

Teacher activities : observes, consults, advises, indirectly manages activities.

5.Fulfillment: Analysis of information, project implementation, formulation of conclusions.

Students' activities : analyze information, draw up a project.

Teacher activities : observes, advises (on request).

6.Evaluation of results: Analysis of the implementation of the project, the results achieved (successes and failures) and the reasons for this, the analysis of the achievement of the goal.

Students' activities : participate in collective project introspection and self-assessment, analyze information.

Teacher activities : observes, guides the analysis process (if necessary), advises.

7.Protection of the project: Preparation of possible forms of presentation of results, justification of the design process, explanation of the results obtained, defense, evaluation, written report

Students' activities : defend the project, participate in a collective assessment by discussing the results,

Teacher activities : participates in the collective analysis and evaluation of the results of the project, evaluating the efforts of students, creativity, the quality of the use of sources.

PERFORMANCE AND PROTECTION CRITERIA.

When using the project method, there are two real results of the work done. The first (hidden) is the pedagogical effect of being included in the process of "obtaining knowledge" and their logical application: the formation of personal qualities, motivation, reflection and self-esteem, the ability to make a choice and comprehend both the consequences of this choice and the results of one's own activity. The second component of evaluating the result is actually that visible part of the "iceberg", which is the completed project. Moreover, it is not the volume of assimilated information that is assessed (what has been studied), but its application in activities (as applied) to achieve the set goal.

If the project is done poorly, it is simply impossible to repeat it, but leaving such a gap is unacceptable. The final project can and should be proposed to be redone, completed, and the current one replaced by a differentiated offset with an assessment.

Such results can be avoided if, in the course of the design, problem seminars, "open" consultations are carried out, other interactive types of training are used, saturating educational activities with elements of independent cognition and obtaining information.

There are many approaches to project appraisal. The most convenient rating is considered.

Criteria for the design and implementation of the project:

1. Relevance of the topic and the proposed solutions, reality, practical focus and significance of the work.

2. The volume and completeness of developments, independence, completeness, readiness for publication.

3. The level of creativity, originality of the disclosure of the topic, approaches, proposed solutions.

4. Argumentation of the proposed solutions, approaches, conclusions, completeness of bibliography, citation.

5. Quality of the report: design, compliance with standard requirements, classification and structure of the text, quality of sketches, diagrams, figures; quality and completeness of reviews.

Protection criteria:

1. Quality of presentation: composition, completeness of presentation of work, approaches, results; argumentation, persuasiveness, conviction.

2. The volume and depth of knowledge on the topic (or subject), erudition, intersubject connections.

3. Culture of speech, manner, use of visual aids, sense of timing, improvisation, keeping the audience's attention.

4. Answers to questions: completeness, argumentation, persuasiveness and conviction, friendliness, the desire to use the answers for the successful disclosure of the topic and strengths of the work.

5. Business and strong-willed qualities: responsible decision, striving to achieve high results, readiness for discussion, ability to work with overload, benevolence, contact.

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"Svechnikova"

Project

"Russian culture to Xv - Xvi centuries. "

Prepared

student of 10 "B" class

Svechnikova Maria

MBUSOSH №1 r.p. Bashmakovo

2014

At the turn of the 15-16 centuries. the process of the formation of a unified Russian state was completed, the country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. This had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes. The general Russian culture of this period was completely subordinated to the service of the "sovereign cause". Literature and public life, architecture and even painting are permeated with concerns about the Russian state.

Education and scientific knowledge .

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia grew rapidly. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. Monasteries remained centers of literacy and education. They also had libraries of handwritten and later printed books, sometimes very significant (for example, in Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, Joseph-Volokolamsky, Kirillo-Belozersky, Rostov and other monasteries).

In ancient Russian schools, only primary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the Book of Hours, the Psalter, and other divine books. Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. The rest of the education was received not in schools, but in communication with knowledgeable people and "versatile" reading of books.

Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and geometry textbooks dates back to the second half of the 16th century. The use of Russian terminology in them seems to be interesting. In practical terms, tens of thousands were called "darkness", in theoretical terms - a million, followed by a million "legion", followed by a legion of legions - "leodr", leodr leodr - "raven". Mathematical terminology extended to units of the 49th category.

The practical use of mathematical knowledge can be seen in the experience of cannon business, in church, fortification construction. In the military campaigns of the Russian army, artillery was used. Cannons with the bright names "Flying Serpent", "Convoluted Serpent", "Falcon", "Lion's Head" have been known since the time of the siege of Kazan. Andrey Chokhov stands out among the foundry masters of the late 16th century. His works His most famous work - "Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin is noted for its large size, beauty of form and technical perfection.

In the textbook on geometry to scribes, "with the attachment of surveying drawings", contained information on the calculation of the areas of geometric figures. Calculations of the measurement of areas are included in the works of Ermolai-Erasmus "A ruler and agriculture with a benevolent king." Grammar manuals appeared - the works of Maxim the Greek: "The beginning of the Greek and Russian literacy", "Preface about the initial letter, the rex about the alphabet", "Legend by a literate degree", etc. Knowledgeable people highly respected grammar, it is said in the "ABC" of the end of the 16th century, "the foundation and sole of all free tricks."

The appearance of book printing was of pivotal importance for enlightenment. Even under Ivan III, Bartholomew Gotan, an amateur pioneer printer, tried to print books in Russia. But the first experiment failed. Ten years later, a printing house was opened in Moscow, headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564, the first book, The Apostle, was published. Until the end of the 16th century. about 20 books of church and religious content were published.

Ivan Fedorov's printing press

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, agriculture acquired a rational and scientific character. This is evidenced by "Naziatel" - a kind of translated practical encyclopedia on agricultural labor and everyday life. In the 16th century, a classification of soils based on rye yields was established. Domostroy testifies to the use of a number of agronomic techniques. The books "herbalists" and "medical books" give an idea of ​​the development of biological and medical knowledge. Herbalists included a detailed description of the plants, indicated their medicinal qualities, and reported the methods of their use. In the 16th century, several Russian translations of Polish medical books were made.

Architecture

Architecture of the late 15th-16th centuries reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage begins in both temple and civil architecture. Along with Russian craftsmen, craftsmen from Italy, which at that time was an advanced country in Europe, are participating in the construction.

The Kremlin ensemble in Moscow is being decorated - walls and towers, cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber. They were erected by Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Ruffo, Alvez Novy) and Russian masters (Vasily Ermolin, etc.)

On the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti built a new Assumption Cathedral. The temple amazes with the beauty of proportions, laconism of artistic means. Russian chronicles wrote about the Assumption Cathedral that it was "marvelous in majesty and height, and lordship, and sonority, and space." The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

Assumption Cathedral

Italian architect Aleviz Novy in 1505-1508. the Archangel Cathedral was erected. In its appearance, the secular style of architecture is already clearly expressed. The main structure is traditional: a cross-domed five-domed temple with six pillars supporting the vaults.

Cathedral of the Archangel

In stone architecture, the Russian national style is clearly expressed in the nine tent buildings of St. Basil's Cathedral. It was erected on the occasion of the capture of Kazan in 1552.

St. Basil's Cathedral

The complete picturesque ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin embodied the ideas of the greatness and strength of the united Russian state.

Temple construction continued in other cities. Monumental cathedrals were erected in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov and in large monasteries - Kirillo-Belozersky and others. hip-roof temple. The tent structure was used in the most important architectural structures, most of which were erected in connection with military victories. Hip-roofed stone churches had a significant impact on the architecture of the 17th century. They marked the greatest rise of ancient Russian architecture

An outstanding example of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. As well as the Nikolskaya church in the village of Lyavle and the Ilyinsky church in the Vyisky churchyard

Nikolskaya church in the village of Lyavle

Least of all the monuments of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries were preserved wooden architecture ... Such are the temples of the Stroganovs in Solvychegodsk. They were built in 1565 and existed until 1798.

Mansions of the Strogonovs

Painting

In the center of the pictorial visual culture of the late 15th - 16th centuries, there is the work of the greatest icon painter of that time, Dionysius. "Deep maturity and artistic perfection" of this master represents the centuries-old tradition of Russian icon painting. Together with Andrei Rublev, Dionisy makes up the legendary glory of the culture of Ancient Rus.

Dionysius with his sons and his associates own the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery

Traits of Dionysius' icon painting:

Colorfulness

Decorativeness

Lush solemnity

A deeply philosophical worldview allowed the master to most fully express the national characteristics of Russian artistic culture of that time

Some of his murals

Painting is increasingly becoming a state affair. The icon "Militant Church" glorifies the capture of Kazan, the Russian army, the young autocrat. The murals of the Golden Chamber in the Kremlin are dedicated to historical events. For example, the frescoes of the Faceted Chamber, telling about Joseph the Beautiful, tell about the rise of Boris Godunov.

Icon "Militant Church"

At the end of the 16th century, the icons of the "Stroganov writing" became famous.

Its features:

Diminutiveness

Subtlety

Grace of portrayal

Decorativeness and conviviality

Icons of the "Stroganov letter"

Moscow masters Prokopiy Chirin, Istoma Savin and other "tsarist icon painters" worked in this manner.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. There is, on the one hand, the growth of skill, technical perfection, on the other, the loss of depth, monumentality, and the wide breath of painting by A. Rublyov and F. Grek.

Everyday life

By the beginning of the 16th century, Christianity played a decisive role in influencing the culture and life of the Russian people. It played a positive role in overcoming the harsh morals, ignorance and wild customs of ancient Russian society. In particular, the norms of Christian morality had a tremendous impact on family life, marriage, and the upbringing of children.

Houses

The overwhelming majority of dwellings of that time were semi-earthen and ground (log cabins, standing on the ground) huts. Particularly noble people had houses of several log cabins, with passages, stairs, porches, and carved decorations. The atmosphere in the house was also different. Those who are poorer have wooden tables, benches, benches along the walls. The rich have the same objects, more stools covered with beautiful carvings and paintings; on them - pillows, rollers; small benches were placed at the feet.

2) Clothing and appearance.

Rich people (princes, boyars, merchants):

Long, toe-length garments with embroidery and jewels

Fur coats from expensive furs, casings, plow lands.

Things are made of foreign satin, velvet, damask, cloth

Decorated with sables, stones, pearls.

Wealthy men cut their hair short, walked or plucked mustache and beard, painted their cheeks and lips like women. And women beyond measure whitewashed and painted their faces, "blackened their eyes", plucked their eyebrows.

Poor people:

Bear fur coats

Bast bast

Plain Belted Shirts

Clothes are made of homespun cloth, bleached canvas.

3) Entertainment

The social life of the population also included games and amusements, both military and peaceful, for example, the capture of a snowy city, wrestling and fistfights, small towns, leapfrog, etc. Street performances were also held on holidays. In addition to playing the harp, pipes, songs, performances of buffoons included acrobatic numbers, competitions with predatory animals. The buffoonery troupe usually consisted of an organ-grinder, a gaer (acrobat), and a puppeteer. The favorite pastime of kings and nobility was hunting.

Conclusion : Culture of Moscow Russia XV-XVI centuries. experienced an upsurge associated with the defeat of the Golden Horde and the creation of a single Russian state with the center in Moscow. This was reflected in the development of all areas of culture - in literature, architecture, painting, arts and crafts, as well as in the growth of literacy and education, which was facilitated by the emergence of printing.

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"Busheva"

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian culture sums up the results of the outgoing Middle Ages, traditionally looks back at the past century, forms the foundations of such innovations that will transform Russian culture in the 17th century and radically change at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.

Education. Scientific knowledge.

Geographical knowledge can be studied from documents of that time - scribes and landmarks, from ambassadorial and category books; according to maps ("drawings") and unsubscriptions of service people, chronicles and descriptions of travelers, Russians and foreigners.

The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - over 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. The merchants needed education. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on the difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which after his return were included in the chronicle.

In the second half of the XVI century. the specified applied knowledge is multiplied and complicated. For example, the construction of the Intercession Cathedral (Basil the Blessed) on Red Square in Moscow, a very complex structure, could not do without theoretical information on mechanics and mathematics.

At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. For foreigners coming to Muscovy from various European and Eastern countries, there were appropriate "tlumachi" - translators.

The level of Russian culture is marked by the emergence of a large number of educated and inquisitive people: statesmen, engineers, specialists in "mining", "adding machines", cartographers, etc. This is the voivode V.M. Tuchkov, Prince I.V. Tokmakov, I. D. Saburov, Prince P.I. Shuisky, boyar F.I. Karpov, "adorned with many minds", boyar Bersen-Beklemishev, V. Patrikeev, Joseph Volotsky, Misyur-Munekhin, D. Gerasimov and many others.

His most famous work is "The Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin. Its weight is 40 tons, the diameter of the barrel is a caliber of 89 centimeters. There were no more such guns. The weapon is richly decorated, and in the muzzle, where the image was usually placed, according to which the individual name was given (leopard, bear, etc.), there is a relief of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich galloping on a horse, therefore the work was named "Tsar Cannon".

Complex engineering problems were also solved by Russian architects. Ivan Grigorievich Vyrodkov in an unusually short time, in just four weeks, built a fortress in the city of Sviyazhsk, strategically important for the capture of Kazan. He also supervised the construction of the tours that encircled the Kazan fortress. Complex theoretical calculations required the construction of stone churches. For example, the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in 1532 surprises with the balance of the building, in which the architects were able to calculate the load-bearing structures, the thickness of the walls and the enormous height of the temple.

No less complex calculations were demonstrated by the gigantic hydraulic structures of the Solovetsky Monastery. A system of canals connected several dozen lakes. Mills and a forge were built, the bellows and hammers of which were driven by water. A stone dam with bridges was laid across the sea strait between the two islands. Stone dams lined the fish cages.

The ethnographic and geographical representations of the Russian people were changing more and more decisively. The first Russian encyclopedias, the so-called "Azbukovniki", contain information about the western and some eastern regions. Cartography developed: schemes of many lands of the Russian kingdom were drawn up - "Drawing of Smolensk and the border of Smolensk volosts", "Drawing of the Great Luke and Pskov suburbs with the Lithuanian city of Polotsk", "Drawing of Livonian cities".

At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, agriculture acquired a rational and scientific character. This is evidenced by "Naziatel" - a kind of translated practical encyclopedia on agricultural labor and everyday life. In the 16th century, a classification of soils based on rye yields was established. Domostroy testifies to the use of a number of agronomic techniques.

The books "herbalists" and "medical books" give an idea of ​​the development of biological and medical knowledge. Herbalists included a detailed description of the plants, indicated their medicinal qualities, and reported the methods of their use. In the 16th century, several Russian translations of Polish medical books were made.

.

The state supported some applied sciences, the results of which were immediately visible in trade, military campaigns, construction, but in general, education and scientific knowledge developed within the boundaries of the theological and theocratic ideas about the world and society.

Architecture.

The main building materials for the architects of the late 15th - 16th centuries were wood and stone. The forms and structures of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purposes.

Strengthening of Russian statehood already at the end of the 15th century. stimulated the restoration of the ancients and the construction of new buildings of the Moscow Kremlin, the cathedral of the beginning of the XIII century. in Yuryev Polsky and some others. Stone construction, although still to a small extent, began to be used for the construction of residential buildings. The use of bricks opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects: In the course of the unification of the Russian lands, an all-Russian architectural style began to form. The leading role in it belonged to Moscow, however, with the active influence of local schools and traditions. Thus, the Dukhovskaya Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, built in 1476, combined the techniques of Moscow and Pskov architecture.

The restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture. In 1471, after the victory over Novgorod, Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip decided to build a new Cathedral of the Dormition, which was to surpass the ancient Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and reflect the power of the Russian state unified by Moscow. At first, the cathedral was built by Russian craftsmen, but the building collapsed. The craftsmen had no experience in the construction of large buildings for a long time. Then Ivan I I I ordered to find a master in Italy.

In 1475, the famous engineer and architect Aristotle Fioravanti came to Moscow. The Italian master got acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture and by 1479 had built a new Cathedral of the Assumption - an outstanding work of Russian architecture, enriched with elements of Italian building technology and architecture of the Renaissance. Solemnly stately, embodying the power of the young Russian state in its forms, the building of the cathedral became the main religious and political building of the grand-ducal Moscow, a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 15th century.

For the reconstruction of the Kremlin, masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Rufsro, Aleviz Milanets and others were invited from Italy. under their leadership, new walls and towers (preserved to this day) were erected for the Kremlin, which expanded its territory to 26.5 hectares. At the same time, its internal layout was formed. In the center was Cathedral Square with the monumental building of the Assumption Cathedral and the high bell tower of Ivan the Great (architect Bon Fryazin, 1505 - 1508), completed at the beginning of the 17th century. On the southwestern side of the square, the Annunciation Cathedral appeared, which was part of the palace grand ducal ensemble. This cathedral was built by Pskov masters in 1484-1489. The techniques of its external decoration are borrowed from the Vladimir-Moscow traditions (arcature belts) and from the Pskov ones (patterns of the upper part of the domes). In 1487 - 1491 Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari built the Palace of Facets to receive foreign ambassadors. It was the largest hall at that time. The vaults of the hall rest on a massive pillar in the middle - no other methods of erecting large interiors were known then. The chamber got its name from the "facets" of the external processing of the facade. In 1505-1509 Aleviz built the tomb of the great dukes and members of their families - the Cathedral of Archangel Michael, where the traditions of Moscow architecture (a cube topped with a five-domed) are combined with elegant Italian decor. The zakomar ("shells") finishing technique used by the architect later became a favorite in Moscow architecture.

In 1532 in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir of Vasily III - Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Terrible, the tent-roofed Church of the Ascension was erected, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. The temple, which soared into the sky on a coastal hill near the Moskva River, embodied the idea of ​​moving upward with amazing force.

The crown of Russian architectural culture of the 16th century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded with bright, peculiar-shaped domes of side-chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the forms of the cathedral gave it a fabulous look and made it a real pearl of Moscow architecture. This great monument of Russian architecture of the 16th century. reflected the wealth of folk talent, the great spiritual uplift that the country was experiencing then, having got rid of the threat of attacks from the most dangerous enemy and going through a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.

Painting.

The process of development of painting in Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries was approximately the same. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of pictorial art, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutyev and Ferapontov monasteries. Fulfilling the orders of the Metropolitan and the Grand Duke, Dionysius managed to make his painting very elegant, beautiful, festive, despite the static nature of the figures, repetition of compositional techniques, and a complete lack of perspective.
Dionysius's workshop made the so-called "hagiographic" icons, which, in addition to the image of the "saint," also contained small "stamps" on the sides with images of individual episodes strictly according to the text of the "life" of this saint. The icons were dedicated to the Moscow "saints" who played a significant role in the rise of Moscow.

Official church ideas were embodied in a large beautiful icon "Militant Church", painted in the middle of the 16th century. to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of "true Christianity" over the "infidels", "basurmans". The warriors are led by the "saints", they are overshadowed by the Mother of God and the angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and an empty body of water is other religions and apostateIya from Christianity.

In the conditions of strict regulation of pictorial art, by the end of the century a special trend developed among artists, focusing efforts on the painting technique itself. This was the so-called "Stroganov school" - named after the wealthy merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who patronized this trend with their orders. In the Stroganov school, the technique of writing, the ability to convey details in a very limited area, external picturesqueness, beauty, and thoroughness of execution were valued.Democratic tendencies manifested themselves among painters associated with the townspeople circles of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod. On the icons they painted, at times, instead of the "biblical" ones, objects and characters appeared that were well known to the viewer and the artist from the life around them. Here you can find an image of the Mother of God, similar to a Russian peasant woman, a rather real image of the log walls and towers of Russian monasteries.

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"Grechishkin"

"Russian culture toXI - Xvi centuries. "

Prepared:

Grechishkin Dmitry

10 "B" class

Folklore

"The Tale of Borma-Yaryzhka"

The hero is a simple Russian man who obtains signs of royal dignity for Tsar Ivan the Terrible in Babylon City. A similar plot developed in The Tale of the Kingdom of Babylon, but it deals with the regalia for the Byzantine emperor.

Other tales glorify the mind, sharpness of people from the people ("Clever boy judge", "Fire serpent", "Wise maiden", etc.), some tales were included in "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" (about a peasant girl who became the wife of a prince ).

"The king pays, but the huntsman does not favor"

"Give will to the king, the foreigner and the hound"

Literature

"Chronograph" - an overview of world history

"The Tale of the Babylonian Kingdom" -with their idea of ​​the succession of the power of the Byzantine emperors from the rulersVavilova on Russian soil are supplemented by the version about the transfer of the Monomakh hat, porphyry and scepter by the Byzantine Emperor Leo to the Grand Duke of Kiev VladimirMonomakh: "... and to this day thatMonomakhov's hatin the Russian state, in the God-protected in the reigning city of Moscow. "

"Legends about the princes of Vladimir" -early 16th century deduces the pedigree of the Moscow rulers fromAugust, Roman Caesar.

"The Tale of the White Hood", "The Tale of the Beginning of Moscow" -n e same or similar ideas are developed in the epistles of Philotheus, abbot of PskovEleazarovamonastery, Vasily III.

"Heresy of the Judaizing"- In the writings of heretics-freethinkers at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, especially their left, radical, wing, the main dogmas were denied Christiancreeds - trinity of God, immaculateconception, communion, the need for icons, the very institution of the church. Heretics criticized bribery and other vices of the institution of spiritual fraternity. The more moderate wing claimed only free thinking in literature and scientific pursuits.

"The Tale of the Battle of Molodino", "The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to Pskov" -g sheepand legends tell about the most importantevents that era - the annexation of Novgorod the Great and other Russian lands to Moscow, Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his deeds, the struggle of Russia with foreign invaders.

"The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" -the second half of the century was marked by a vivid, emotional correspondence between the tsar of Terrible and the prince -fugitive A. M. Kurbsky. The first of them also owns messages to many other persons, secular and spiritual; and this second.

"Kazan History", "Book of Degrees" -this grandmonument, like others, affirms the ideas of the greatness of the Russian autocracy, its centralized policy.

Chety-Miney - collection of the lives of Russian saints, arranged by months of the year

"The Tale of the Honorable Life of Tsar Fyodor" - heavy-handed style (by Patriarch Job)

"The Life of Metropolitan Philip" - an extensive chronicle

Architecture

This era was characterized by a significant rise in the art of building. At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries. the Kremlin ensemble in Moscow is being formed - walls and towers, cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber. They were erected by Italian architects (Aristotle Floravanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Ruffo) and Russian masters (Vasily Dmitrievich Ermolin and others). They used the traditions of Old Russian, primarily Vladimir-Suzdal, architecture, as well as the techniques of Italian architecture of the Renaissance.

Fortifications in the first half of the century were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Zaraisk, Kolomna. The wall of Kitay-gorod appears in the capital (1530s), the Novodevichy Convent (1525)

In church architecture, a tent-roofed temple, modeled on wooden churches, is becoming widespread.

The most outstanding example of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), built to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. A contemporary chronicler could not restrain a sense of admiration, writing down the news about this architectural miracle in his work: "Velma is wonderful in height and beauty, and lordship, such is she who has never been in Russia before."

Throughout the century, timber construction continues to prevail. In addition to the ubiquitous huts, sometimes very complex in terms of and bizarre in shape. Such are the mansions of the Stroganovs, eminent merchants, in Solvychegodsk (1565).

In stone architecture, the Russian national style is clearly expressed in the nine tent buildings of St. Basil's Cathedral. It was erected on the occasion of the capture of Kazan in 1552.

They continue to build cathedrals and fortress walls in monasteries - Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, and others. In Moscow, the White City was surrounded by a wall, within the modern Boulevard Ring.

Following the example of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in Vologda, St. Sophia Cathedral is being built (1568-1570).

And in Vyazemki, west of Moscow, in the estate of Boris Godunov, a majestic five-domed church of the Holy Trinity appears; later they began to call him

Extensive construction throughout Russia made it necessary to create a special institution - the Order of Stone Affairs (1580s). He organized construction work on a very large scale (calling workers from different cities, procurement of building materials).

Painting

At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries. in icon painting and fresco painting, Dionysius with his sons and associates became famous. They own the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery. They attract with their colorfulness, magnificent solemnity. The icon painting of the Novgorod icon is distinguished by a greater laconism and severity.

In painting, the predominance of the Moscow school is increasing. Genre motives are more and more penetrating into icon painting, there are elements of realism. This is even more typical for the second half of the 16th century.

Painting is becoming more and more a state matter. The church after the Stoglava Cathedral in 1551 strengthens the supervision of icon painters.

The icon "Militant Church" (mid-16th century) in allegorical form glorifies the capture of Kazan, the Russian army, the young autocrat.

The paintings of the Golden Chamber in the Kremlin (1547 - 1552) are dedicated to historical events. For example, the frescoes of the Faceted Chamber, telling about Joseph the Beautiful, tell about the rise of Boris Godunov.

At the end of the XVI century. the icon of the "Stroganov letter" became famous. They are distinguished by their diminutiveness, subtlety and gracefulness of drawing, decorativeness and festivity. Moscow masters worked in this manner. Procopiy Chirin, Istoma Savin and other "royal icon painters". They often performed icons on the orders of the eminent people of the Stroganovs. Their own masters from their former serfs in Solvychegodsk also worked for them. This school also existed in the 17th century, under its influence many masters subsequently worked, including in the famous Palekh.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. There is, on the one hand, an increase in skill and technical excellence; on the other, the loss of depth, monumentality, and the broad breath of painting by A. Rublev and F. Grek.

Everyday life

In the second half of the XVI century. outstanding examples of sewing came from the workshop of the Staritsky princes ("The Shroud")

"The Appearance of Our Lady to Sergius of Radonezh"). Ksenia Godunova, the daughter of Tsar Boris, skillfully embroidered on Spanish and Venetian velvet.

Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with different outbuildings, residential and economic, for themselves, courtyards, cattle and poultry. The houses were mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with utensils of silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). There were sometimes clocks on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, adornments, dishes, clothes; oriental footwear, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

"Buffoons and their business, dancing and snuffling, always loving demonic songs ... all together I will be in hell, and here I will be cursed." But buffoonery, like other folk entertainments, continued to exist in spite of everything.

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"Ivanchina"

"Russian culture of the late 15-16th century"

Prepared

Ivanchina Alina

student of grade 10 "b"

MBUSOSH №1 r.p. Bashmakovo

Architecture

This era was characterized by a significant rise in the art of building.

The main building materials for the architects of the late 15th - 16th centuries were wood and stone. The forms and structures of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purposes.

The restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture.

From 1475 to 1479, the most important temple of the Russian state, the new Assumption Cathedral, was built.

The construction was supervised by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti.

At the other end of the square, in front of this cathedral, the Italian Aleviz the New erected a tomb-cathedral, the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael.

In the western part of the Kremlin, the palace of the great Moscow prince was built, which included the Embankment Chamber, the Middle Golden Chamber and the Great Faceted Chamber.

Somewhat later, in 1485-1489, the Annunciation Cathedral and the Church of the Deposition near it were built on the southwestern side of the hill.

These temples were built by an artel of Pskov craftsmen. The main princely treasury - the Kazenny Dvor is located between two cathedrals: Arkhangelsk and Annunciation. Somewhat later, in 1505-1508, the formation of the entire architectural ensemble of Cathedral Square was completed with the construction of the Ivan the Great Bell Tower.

According to tradition, all new churches were built in the same places where their ancient predecessors were located, the very first churches that appeared here during the time of Ivan Kalita and Dmitry Donskoy. The temples had the same names; all the relics and burials were carefully transferred from the old temples. The most revered Russian shrine at that time - the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, was transported from Vladimir to the Assumption Cathedral.

The finishing touch of the Kremlin restructuring is the erection of new walls and towers on them.

In 1532 in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir of Vasily III - Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Terrible, the tent-roofed Church of the Ascension was erected, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. The temple, which soared into the sky on a coastal hill near the Moskva River, embodied the idea of ​​moving upward with amazing force.

The crown of Russian architectural culture of the 16th century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded with bright, peculiar-shaped domes of side-chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the forms of the cathedral gave it a fabulous look and made it a real pearl of Moscow architecture. This great monument of Russian architecture of the 16th century. reflected the wealth of folk talent, the great spiritual uplift that the country was experiencing then, having got rid of the threat of attacks from the most dangerous enemy and going through a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.

Painting.

Painting also developed intensively. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of pictorial art, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutyev and Ferapontov monasteries. They own the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. The icons attract with their colorfulness, decorativeness, magnificent solemnity.

In painting, the predominance of the Moscow school is increasing. Genre motives are more and more penetrating into icon painting, there are elements of realism.

Official church ideas were embodied in a large beautiful icon "Militant Church", painted in the middle of the 16th century. to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of "true Christianity" over the "infidels", "basurmans". The warriors are led by the "saints", they are overshadowed by the Mother of God and the angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and an empty reservoir is other religions and deviations from Christianity.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. There is, on the one hand, an increase in skill and technical excellence; on the other, the loss of depth, monumentality, and the broad breath of painting by A. Rublev and F. Grek.

Education. Scientific knowledge.

The elements of scientific knowledge, multiplying from century to century, were of an applied nature. So, the need for accurate accounting of land and the calculation of taxes from them gave rise to a complex system of soshny writing - the same amount of money was taken from the plow, that is, from a certain amount of land, which was not the same for different classes.

Knowledge in the field of physics and technology was required by the foundry masters in the manufacture of guns, arquebuses, including rifled guns, created in Russia. The same is with the construction of buildings, stone and wooden, sometimes very high, up to 50-60 m; in this matter, one cannot do without accurate calculations, knowledge of building statics, technology.

Salt and potash production, medical and icon painting demanded knowledge from applied chemistry, medicine, and they are reflected in recipe manuscripts.

There are detailed manuals on salting ("Painting, how to conceive a new pipe in a new place"), on scribing, an article "On earth layout, how to make up land"

The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - over 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. The merchants needed education. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on the difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which after his return were included in the chronicle.

At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. For foreigners coming to Muscovy from various European and Eastern countries, there were appropriate "tlumachi" - translators.

The level of Russian culture is marked by the emergence of a large number of educated and inquisitive people: statesmen, engineers, specialists in "mining", "adding machines", cartographers, etc.

The practical use of mathematical knowledge can be seen in the experience of cannon business, in church, fortification construction. Artillery was used in the military campaigns of the Russian army. Cannons with the bright names "Flying Serpent" and "Convolutional Serpent", "Falcon", "Lion's Head" have been known since the time of the siege of Kazan. Andrey Chokhov stands out among the foundry masters of the late 16th century. His works are noted for their large size, beauty of form and technical excellence.

His most famous work is "Tsar Cannon" in the Moscow Kremlin. There were no more such cannons. The weapon is richly decorated, and in the muzzle, where the image was usually placed, according to which the individual name was given (leopard, bear, etc.), there is a relief of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich galloping on a horse, therefore the work was named "Tsar Cannon".

Technical skill allowed the craftsmen to cast guns without seams, to make them with a muzzle flare, which increased the charge of gunpowder. Cannons (as well as bells) were cast on wax models in full size. Rifled guns were made, which were loaded not from the front, but from the rear, "breech".

The ethnographic and geographical representations of the Russian people were changing more and more decisively. The first Russian encyclopedias, the so-called "Azbukovniki", contain information about the western and some eastern regions. Cartography developed: schemes of many lands of the Russian kingdom were drawn up - "Drawing of the Smolensk and the border of Smolensk volosts", "Drawing of the Great Luke and Pskov suburbs with the Lithuanian city of Polotsk", "Drawing of Livonian cities". The state supported some applied sciences, the results of which were immediately visible in trade, military campaigns, construction, but in general, education and scientific knowledge developed within the boundaries of the theological and theocratic ideas about the world and society.

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"Luzgin"

Performed by Luzgina Ksenia

10-b class

With the formation of a unified state, noticeable shifts are taking place in the cultural life of Russia. Local cultural traditions are gradually fading into the past, giving way to general Russian tendencies. The "horizon of observation" of the phenomena of public life among cultural figures is expanding. Yes, and opportunities, monetary, political and psychological, within the framework of a large state, naturally, have increased. The motives of patriotism and national pride are even more weighty and sonorous. At the same time, along with acquisitions, there were also losses - the mighty breath of the creators of the era of the Kulikovo battle disappeared (A. Rublev and F. Grek, chronicles and legends about the fight against the Horde), the growing and deadening influence of autocratic tyranny and the extremes of serfdom, oprichnina terror on the cultural environment of Russian society. The culture of that era is developing in contradictions and struggles.

Education

As before, monasteries remained centers of literacy and education. In them and in churches, especially in the metropolitan and episcopal courts, there were libraries of manuscript, later and printed books, sometimes very significant (for example, in Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, Joseph-Volokolamsky, Kirillo-Belozersky, Rostov and other monasteries, in St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.).

“Masters of Literacy” appear in cities and villages. Children and adults studied with them. At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia grew rapidly. The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - over 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. The priesthood was held by the priests, the clerks were all literate. The merchants needed education. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin took books with him on the difficult journey to the East and kept notes on the way, which after his return were included in the chronicle. The teachers were monks, clerks. Boyars and nobles put their signatures on many acts; to a lesser extent - peasants and townspeople.

But in the old Russian schools of the late 15th - 16th centuries, only elementary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the Psalter “and other divine books”. Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. The rest of the education was received not in schools, but in communication with knowledgeable people and "versatile" reading of books. The scribes of the late 15th - 16th centuries are not solitary hermits, but active, active people.

Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and geometry textbooks dates back to the second half of the 16th century. In this century, the first textbook on arithmetic appears - “The Book, Recommended in Greek Arithmetic, and in German Algorism, and in Russian tsyfir counting wisdom”. The use of Russian terminology in them seems to be interesting. In practical terms, tens of thousands were called "darkness", in theoretical terms - a million, followed by a million "legion", followed by a legion of legions - "leodr", leodr leodr - "raven". Mathematical terminology extended to units of the 49th category. The arithmetic operations were as follows: the sum is the "bottom large list", the terms are the "lists", the difference is the "balances", the reduced is the "loan list", the deducted is the "pay list", the dividend is the "big list", the divisor is " business list ", private -" foal list ", remainder -" residual shares ". In the textbook on geometry to scribes, "with the attachment of surveying drawings", contained information on the calculation of the areas of geometric figures. Calculations of the measurement of areas are included in the works of Ermolai-Erasmus "A ruler and agriculture with a benevolent king."

Under Ivan IV, Fyodor Ivanovich, some young people were sent to Constantinople to study Greek and grammar. Traveled "parobki" with similar goals and in European countries .

At the same time, there is an interest in foreign languages. There are translations from Greek, Latin, Polish, German, Slavic languages. For foreigners coming to Muscovy from various European and Eastern countries, there were appropriate "tlumachi" - translators.

Some noble people collected libraries of handwritten books in their homes. Tsar Ivan the Terrible had a large collection of such books. Where his library went is unknown. Maybe she is walled up in the Kremlin dungeons. Or the books included in it were later sold to other libraries, for example, the Metropolitan, later the Patriarch, and others. In the XVI century. the book becomes the main source of knowledge. At that time they learned to read and write from church service books. However, even among them there are census and printed books specially designed for teaching. This is how the teaching gospel appears. The need for books was one of the reasons for the appearance of the first printing house in Moscow. The book was also an important factor in the spread of literacy.

The appearance of book printing was of pivotal importance for enlightenment. Even under Ivan III, Bartholomew Gotan, the first printer in Lubeck, tried to print books in Russia. But the first experiment failed. More than half a century later, in the mid-50s. XVI century, the first books of the so-called "hopeless press" (did not have a designation of the place and year of publication) appeared in Moscow. It was then that Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich started a printing house. 10 years later, on April 1, 1564, Ivan Fedorov published The Apostle in it. Then came the "Book of Hours" and other books. Two years later Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and

died in Lvov in 1583. Here he continued his beloved work.

Among other books, “Drukar Muscovitin” (Moscow printer), as he was called in Ukraine, published the first printed Russian Primer “for the benefit of the Russian people,” as he wrote in the afterword.

IvanFedorov, the first Russian book printerin your printing house

In Moscow, books were published by the collaborators and followers of Ivan Fedorov (Andronic Nevezha and others); in total, about 20 books of theological content have appeared. A big step forward has been made in teaching and enlightenment.

Scientific knowledge

The rapid development of the Russian state has attached special importance to scientific knowledge. For this time, church education was no longer enough. Knowledge of applied sciences was required in construction, foundry, military and monetary affairs, printing, salt production, architecture and other areas. There was a need for people with knowledge in the field of geometry, mechanics, medicine, geography.

The elements of scientific knowledge, multiplying from century to century, were of an applied nature. So, the need for accurate accounting of land and the calculation of taxes from them gave rise to a complex system of soshny writing - the same amount of money was taken from the plow, that is, from a certain amount of land, which was not the same for different classes. At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, agriculture acquired a rational and scientific character. This is evidenced by "Naziatel" - a kind of translated practical encyclopedia on agricultural labor and everyday life. In the 16th century, a classification of soils based on rye yields was established. Domostroy testifies to the use of a number of agronomic techniques.

Gennady, Archbishop of Novgorod, Metropolitan Zosima in Moscow and their assistants at the end of the 15th century. compiled special tables for Easter, indicating the dates of Easter and other holidays by year. Later, Agathon, priest of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, prepared a manuscript of the work "Peaceful Circle", which continued the Gennadian tables. In the middle of the 16th century, Yermolai-Erasmus, the author of Sighted Easter, did the same. The translated works "Sixwing", "Cosmography" made it possible to calculate the lunar phases, eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

Tsar Cannon

Knowledge in the field of physics and technology was required by the foundry masters in the manufacture of guns, arquebuses, including rifled guns, created in Russia. The same is with the construction of buildings, stone and wooden, sometimes very high, up to 50-60 m; in this matter, one cannot do without accurate calculations, knowledge of building statics, technology. The most striking example is the Tsar Cannon in the Moscow Kremlin. Its weight is 40 tons, the diameter of the barrel is a caliber of 89 centimeters. There were no more such guns. The weapon is richly decorated, and in the muzzle, where the image was usually placed, according to which the individual name was given (leopard, bear, etc.), there is a relief of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich galloping on a horse, therefore the work was named "Tsar Cannon".

Technical skill allowed the craftsmen to cast guns without seams, to make them with a muzzle flare, which increased the charge of gunpowder. Cannons (as well as bells) were cast on wax models in full size. Rifled guns were made, which were loaded not from the front, but from the rear, "breech".

Salting and potash production, medical and icon painting required knowledge of applied chemistry, medicine, and they are reflected in manuscripts of a prescription nature, herbalists (herbs, their healing properties, the preparation of medicines from them) An example can be Anika Stroganov and his sons - Semyon, Maxim and Nikita are the founders of the largest trading house, experienced organizers of various crafts, metalworking, icon painting, correspondence of manuscripts, according to indirect information, who ordered printed books to Ivan Fedorov. They were active organizers of the development of Siberia and the organization of a complex and extremely necessary business for Russia - salt production. The experience of salt production was first documented in the technical instruction for drilling for brine extraction, construction of oil rigs and excavation techniques. The book was titled like this: "Painting how a new pipe is conceived in a new place ..."

Geographical knowledge can be studied from documents of that time - scribes and landmarks, from ambassadorial and category books;

according to maps ("drawings") and unsubscriptions of service people, chronicles and descriptions of travelers, Russians and foreigners. In “walks”, the authors described the countries they visited;

such is, for example, the visit of the ambassador and merchant Vasily Poznyakov, who visited Constantinople and Mount Athos, Jerusalem and Egypt (1558-1561). And even earlier, in 1525, the diplomat and translator Dmitry Gerasimov, in a conversation with Pavel Iovy Povokomsky, said: China and India can be reached not only by the warm southern seas, but also by the Arctic Ocean. He described the conversation in his treatise on Russia, and they learned about it in Western Europe. There, as if under the influence of these messages, an expedition was equipped, a member of which R. Chancellor came to Russia. Ivan the Terrible promised a reward to anyone who finds a "sea route to China and India."

Historical knowledge is reflected in chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends; knowledge of the language - in various dictionaries ("Speeches of the subtleties of the Greek", "Explanation of the Polovtsian language", "Se Tatar language", a dictionary of Slavic words, etc.).

In the second half of the XVI century. the specified applied knowledge is multiplied and complicated. For example, the construction of the Intercession Cathedral (Basil the Blessed) on Red Square in Moscow, a very complex structure, could not do without theoretical information on mechanics and mathematics. The same is with the casting of powerful cannons that accompanied the Russian armies on campaigns to Kazan, Livonia, etc.

St. Basil's Cathedral

Architecture

This era was characterized by a significant rise in the art of building. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. the Kremlin ensemble in Moscow is being formed - walls and towers, cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber. They were erected by Italian architects (Aristotle Fioravanti, Pietro Solari, Marco Ruffo, Aleviz Novy, etc.) and Russian masters (Vasily Dmitrievich Ermolin and others). They used the traditions of Old Russian, primarily Vladimir-Suzdal, architecture, as well as the techniques of Italian architecture of the Renaissance.

The main building materials for the architects of the late 15th - 16th centuries were wood and stone. The forms and structures of buildings were diverse, as well as their functions and purposes.

Fortifications in the first half of the century were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Zaraisk, Kolomna. The wall of Kitai-Gorod (1530s) and the Novodevichy Convent (1525) appear in the capital.

Wall of Kitay-gorod Novodevichy Convent

Wooden architecture has preserved the least of the monuments of the late 15th - 16th centuries. Most of them are located in distant regions of Russia, for example, on the coast of the White Sea, the shores of Lake Onega and the Northern Dvina. A number of monuments are being restored by historians from descriptions of contemporaries and travelers, paintings and engravings depicting them. The Stroganov temples in Solvychegodsk were very famous. They were built in 1565 and existed until 1798. It was a three-story palace, the majestic appearance and size of which amazed those who saw it. The mansions consisted of a row of log cabins with two quadrangular towers. The largest of the towers is six-story, crowned with a barrel-shaped roof, the smaller one with an open top and had a hipped roof. In the vestibule (to the second floor) a two-flight staircase led, the upper platform of which was covered with a barrel, and the lower one - with a low hipped roof. The height of the building is 14 yards. This vertical was complemented by huge towers with barreled and hipped roofs. A picturesque asymmetrical porch completed the ensemble of mansion splendor.

But the clearest idea of ​​wooden architecture is given by the surviving temples. Two buildings - the Church of the Deposition of the Robe in the village of Borodavy (Vologda Oblast) in 1486 and Georgievsky in the village of Yuksovichi (Leningrad Oblast) in 1493 - characterize the main trend of this type of architecture: the transformation of the original church-hut into a more complex church building. The monumentality of the building is achieved by increasing the height of the roof, changing its silhouette and proportions, including the side cuttings that are comparable to the main volume: western and altar (eastern).

Church of the Deposition of the Robe in the village of Borodavy Church of St. George in the village of Yuksovichi

Both churches are proportionally harmonious and cut "as measure and beauty say." They belong to the type of dumpling buildings.

Another type is hipped-roof temples. The most outstanding example of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), built to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. The contemporary chronicler could not hold back the feeling of admiration, writing down the news about this architectural miracle in his work: "Velma is wonderful in height and beauty, and lordship, she has never been in Russia before."

Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye

Throughout the century, timber construction continues to prevail. In addition to the ubiquitous huts, mansions of rich people are being built, sometimes very complex in plan and bizarre in shape. Such are the mansions of the Stroganovs, eminent merchants, in Solvychegodsk (1565).

The third type of wooden temples is "kreshatnye", i.e. building a cross in their plan and volumes. An example of this type of construction is the Mother of God Church in the village of Verkhovye (Vologda Oblast). The cross-shaped frame of the church stands on the basement. It ends with an octagon open to the very top with a tent. Low three-pitched roofs on the sides of the cross have small tetrahedral tents. From the west, a porch adjoined the main volume, a symmetrical porch with two exits led to the second floor.

Mother of God Church in the village of Verkhovye

They continue to build cathedrals and fortress walls in monasteries - Solovetsky, Trinity-Sergiev, and others. In Moscow, the White City was surrounded by a wall, within the modern Boulevard Ring.

Following the example of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in Vologda, St. Sophia Cathedral is being built (1568-1570). And in Vyazyomy, west of Moscow, in the estate of Boris Godunov, a majestic five-domed church of the Holy Trinity appears; later they began to call him Preobrazhensky.

Extensive construction throughout Russia made it necessary to create a special institution - the Order of Stone Affairs (1580s). He organized construction work, on a very large scale (calling workers from different cities, procurement of building materials).

Painting

In the center of the pictorial visual culture of the late 15th - 16th centuries, there is the work of the greatest icon painter of that time, Dionysius. "Deep maturity and artistic perfection" of this master represents the centuries-old tradition of Russian icon painting. Together with Andrei Rublev, Dionisy makes up the legendary glory of the culture of Ancient Rus.

Dionysius was one of the foremost people of his time; the most educated people of Muscovite Rus were among his circle of friends. About Dionysius, Joseph Volotsky writes that the artist philosophized with a brush. A deeply philosophical perception of the world allowed the master to most fully express the national characteristics of the Russian artistic culture of that time. The work of Dionysius was the leading one in contemporary Moscow painting trends. Despite his pronounced innovation, Dionysius is closely associated with the best traditions of his brilliant predecessor, Andrei Rublev, but is not his follower. The works of Dionysius were valued as highly by contemporaries and descendants as the works of Andrei Rublev. Of the huge number of icons created by the master, only a few monuments have survived. Of the 87 works indicated in the inventories of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, not a single one has come down to us.

The main and indisputable creation of Dionysius is the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery. An ancient inscription above the northern door of the temple informs that "the scribes Dionysius the icon painter with his children" completed the work in "2 years" from August 6, 1502 to September 8, 1503. The decoration of the Ferapontovsky temple amazes with lightness, joy of the color system. In the manufacture of paints, the artists used chalk stones of various shades that they found nearby, on the shores of a local lake. Delicate blue tones are combined with pale green, golden yellow with pink, light purple with turquoise, white with cherry, silver-gray with lilac.

Fresco of Dionysius in the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery

Dionysius is a virtuoso master of fresco murals. His work is a whole era in Russian artistic culture. The art of Dionysius had a strong impact on painting, sewing and even sculpture in Moscow and other centers of Ancient Rus.

In the 16th century, two new aspirations began to appear in icon painting: on the one hand, the realistic direction was strengthened, on the other, the theological problems became much more complicated, which made it possible to introduce completely new themes into painting.

Artists happily dwell on numerous everyday details, genre scenes, but at the same time saturate their compositions with didactic edification, symbols and allegories.

Painting is becoming more and more a matter of state. The church after the Stoglava Cathedral in 1551 strengthens the supervision of icon painters. The icon "Militant Church" (mid-16th century) in allegorical form glorifies the capture of Kazan, the Russian army, the young autocrat. The paintings of the Golden Chamber in the Kremlin (1547-1552) are dedicated to historical events. For example, the frescoes of the Faceted Chamber, telling about Joseph the Beautiful, tell about the rise of Boris Godunov.

Icon "Militant Church"

At the end of the XVI century. the icon of “Stroganov's writing” became famous. They are distinguished by their diminutiveness, subtlety and gracefulness of drawing, decorativeness and festivity. Moscow masters Prokopiy Chirin, Istoma Savin and other “tsarist icon painters” worked in this manner. They often performed icons on the orders of the eminent people of the Stroganovs. Their own masters from their former serfs in Solva-chegodsk also worked for them. This school also existed in the 17th century, under its influence many masters subsequently worked, including in the famous Palekh.

The craving for decorativeness and virtuosity, sophistication and splendor is characteristic of the painting of this era. There is, on the one hand, an increase in skill and technical excellence; on the other, the loss of depth, monumentality, and the broad breath of painting by A. Rublev and F. Grek.

Everyday life

The extensive construction of temples and monasteries, palaces and towers caused a desire to decorate them with items of applied art. The masters of that time made frames of amazing beauty and subtlety for books and icons with filigree (filigree) and basma embossing. From the end of the 15th century. the flourishing of the art of enamel, forgotten at the time of the Horde yoke, begins.

In church use, products with artistic embroidery were often used - hanging sheets and headstones, shroud and "air". They were usually made of silk, gold and silver, in a "picturesque style" (a combination of multi-colored tones, dark and light, brightness and brilliance).

The book miniatures depicted scenes from the Old and New Testaments, the lives of the saints, the events of Russian history. Illustrations of the Observatory of the Chronicle and the collection of the lives of the saints of Chetia-Minea are rightfully considered masterpieces of Russian miniature art. Illustrations in printed editions are marked with splendor and decorativeness.

In the second half of the XVI century. outstanding examples of sewing came from the workshop of the Staritsky princes ("The Shroud", "The Appearance of the Mother of God to Sergius of Radonezh"). Ksenia Godunova, the daughter of Tsar Boris, skillfully embroidered on Spanish and Venetian velvet.

Shroud Appearance of Our Lady to Sergius of Radonezh

All these products were prepared for wealthy people who had considerable means and extensive premises for housing or church services.

Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with different outbuildings, residential and economic, for themselves, courtyards, cattle and poultry. The houses were mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with utensils of silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). There were sometimes clocks on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, jewelry, dishes, clothing; oriental footwear, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

The nobles even then began, in the Western manner, to cut their hair short, shave or pluck out their mustache and beard.

The meals were plentiful and varied. Spices were used for seasoning: pepper and saffron, cinnamon and cloves. We were familiar with lemons, raisins, almonds, rice and sugar.

Noble people had fun at feasts with buffoons, playing folk instruments, dancing. No matter how the church persecuted "demonic games", it was difficult to get them out. They were fond of bear-baiting, “horse ripening”, hound and falconry hunting. At home they played dice and cards, checkers and chess.

Fight with the bear

Folk songs and church music served another side of spiritual needs. In the XVI century. polyphonic church chants came from Novgorod to Moscow and other regions of Russia. The Russian people also loved the bell ringing. New instruments (organs, harpsichords, clavichords) and Western European music penetrate into the life of the nobility from abroad.

Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - peasants - lived in wooden huts, covered with straw or shit; there were cages for property, cattle sheds, sheds. The huts were drowned in black, lit with torches. In winter, small livestock and poultry were placed in them.

The furnishings in the hut were very sparse: wooden, crudely made tables and benches; a dress was kept in chests and boxes (among the poor they hung it on poles leaning against the wall). In summer they wore clothes made of home canvas, in winter they wore clothes made of homespun cloth and lamb fur, bast bast shoes on their feet, and for those who were richer, boots. Dishes - wooden and earthenware: dishes and plates, ladles, ladles, bowls, cups, broths, wooden spoons and clay pots, occasionally - pots and pans made of iron and copper.

Bread and pies, jelly, beer and kvass were made from grain and flour; ate cabbage, fresh and sauerkraut, carrots and cucumbers, beets and horseradish, radishes and turnips. The meat was on the table mainly on holidays. They ate a lot of fish, river and lake.

Similar to the peasants, but with the more prosperous, the townspeople lived in cities. The courtyard often consisted of an upper room, which stood on a porch, a porch for a porch, a cage for a porch, a bathhouse; it is surrounded by a tynom with a gate that had a canopy. There were mica and glazed windows. In the house, among other things, there were icons, sometimes richly decorated, a lot of dishes, including silver, and clothes, sometimes of fur. Guests, large trading people lived richly - stone chambers, a large number of dishes, gold and silver, and other property.

Festivities with songs, dances, buffoonery performances gave working people the opportunity to take a break from work. Folk performers - singers, like all buffoons, were professionals. From them, peasants and townspeople heard historical and lyrical, satirical and ritual songs. The singing was accompanied by accompaniment on instruments: wind instruments - pipes and horns, snuffs and flutes, bagpipes, trumpets and surnas; strings - psaltery, beeps, balalaikas; percussion - tambourines and rattles.

Elements of the theater, drama contained Christmas games, carnival, winter and summer farewell. Their participants put on masks, staged dressing up, mimic performances, dramatic performances, staged riddles. In round dance songs, at weddings, a kind of performances were played with a large number of characters, specific roles, a strict ritual (matchmaking, arm-wrestling, hen party, wedding, bread, etc.).

The buffoons gathered in troupes, sometimes very large, up to 60-100 people. Their art is the embryo of folk theater. They - actors and musicians, singers and dancers, acrobats and magicians - acted out comedy scenes, including those with the beloved people of Petrushka. His humor and ingenuity, ridicule of the rich, confidence and inexhaustibility in inventions delighted the audience.

Circus performances with a bear, a goat and other animals were also organized. Skomorokhs walked all over Russia, as well as across Europe, right up to Italy. The authorities and especially the clergy persecuted buffoons. Domostroy sharply condemns them:

"Buffoons and their business, dancing and snuffling, always loving demonic songs ... all together I will be in hell, and here I will be cursed." But buffoonery, like other folk entertainments, continued to exist in spite of everything.

Buffoonsin the village,

Russian culture of the late 15-16 centuries.

2. Folklore.

The leading theme of the UNT continued to be the theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies. In this regard, the epics of the Kiev cycle were revised and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

Historical songs became one of the most widespread genres of oral folk art in the 16th century. The songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

Ivan the Terrible became one of the heroes of the UNT. His image in folk art is very contradictory. There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character are noted. Malyuta Skuratov became a negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by the cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore the active active popular masses are depicted. Ermak became the embodiment of the popular ideal of the struggle against the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a really achievable ideal.

3.Education and typography.

With the development of feudal economy, crafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased. The church also needed them. Education was limited to mastering elementary literacy. The great achievement of Russian culture in the mid-16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered the science under the name of anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown. The print quality amazes with its strict artistic design and the absence of typos.

In total, until the end of the 16th century, about 20 books were published, all of church-religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries the printed book could supplant the handwritten one. Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real publicistic works appeared in the form of letters and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. In the 16th century, chronicle writing continued to develop. The works of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish tsarist power in Russia.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge collection of chronicles - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the chronicle, historical stories were further developed, which told about the events of that time - "Kazan capture", "About the arrival of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov", "History of the Kazan kingdom".

The most striking example of the genre genre of the 16th century was "Domostroy", ie, home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, raising children. Its author was presumably the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation, Sylvester.

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4. Architecture and painting.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture. An innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects had invented a new system of brick floors - a cross vault, resting not on internal pillars, but on external walls. Such small churches were built in the villages (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped-roof temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

Painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-ecclesiastical topics from the world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, the allegorical nature of the plots is a distinctive feature of the fine arts of the 16th century.

With an increase in interest in historical themes, the development of the genre of historical portraiture is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the Stroganov school appeared. She focused on her own painting technique. Distinctive features were: mastery of external performance (the desire to portray the special refined beauty of figures, clothing), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters begin to sign their works for the first time.

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality was completed. As a result of complex ethnic and linguistic processes, the Russian language was formed, which significantly differed not only from Ukrainian and Belarusian, but also from Church Slavonic, which was preserved in the book writing. In the colloquial and close to it the so-called command, business language, the dominant influence was exerted by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, in it - the Moscow dialect. Many words that originally appeared in the Moscow writing system received general Russian distribution, and among them such as "peasant" (peasant), "money", "village", etc. The ancient forms of the past tenses have been lost, and the verb form has received a new development. Began to approach the modern system of declensions and conjugations. In the spoken language, the old "vocative" (Ivane, father, wife, etc.) form of nouns has died out.

Dwellings and settlements

The formation of the Great Russian nationality was also reflected in the features of everyday life and material culture characteristic of the 16th and subsequent centuries. At this time, a type of residential building was formed, consisting of three rooms - a hut, a cage (or a room) and a passage connecting them. The house was covered with a gable roof. This "three-chamber" building became dominant in Russian villages for a long time. In addition to the hut in the peasant's yard there was a granary for storing grain, one or two barns ("palaces") for cattle, a sennik, a soap-house (bathhouse), sometimes barns, barns, sheds, although the latter were most often placed outside the yards, in the field. In cities since the end of the 15th century. stone dwellings of boyars, higher clergy, large merchants began to appear.
Villages of the 16th century usually numbered 10 - 15 households, the larger settlements were villages. The cities developed according to the traditional radial-ring system: the radii formed along the roads leading to other cities, the rings - along the lines of wood-earthen and stone fortifications that covered the expanding parts of the cities. By the end of the XVI century. Moscow had three rings of stone fortifications - the Kremlin, adjacent to it from the east and enclosing the trade center of Kitay-Gorod, the White City (along the line of the modern boulevard ring), and one ring of wood and earth fortifications - the Earthen City, whose fortifications were located along the modern Garden Ring ... City estates usually took to the streets with fences, residential buildings and utility rooms were hidden inside. On rare occasions, the streets were paved with trees; in the summer, during the rains, the streets were practically impassable. Each street had one or more churches.
Since many townspeople had their own livestock, the city had pastures, runs to water and pastures, as well as vegetable gardens, orchards, and sometimes even plots of arable land. In the XV century. the streets of the cities began to be barred at night. In the cities there appeared "round heads" of petty nobles - the embryo of the city police service. "Bypassing heads" were supposed to monitor not only the appearance of "thieves' people", but also the safety in the city. For this purpose, the heating of stoves in houses was prohibited in the summer. Food preparation took place in the courtyards. Blacksmiths and other artisans, whose work was associated with the use of fire, set their workshops away from residential buildings, closer to water. Despite all these precautions, cities often died from fires, causing great damage and often taking away a lot of human casualties. But cities were also rebuilt quickly: ready-made log cabins were brought from the vicinity, they were sold at auctions, and city streets were re-built.

Clothing and food

In the XVI century. a peculiar costume of peasants and townspeople was formed - a ponev, a sundress, a kokoshnik for women, a blouse with a slit on the left side and a felt boot (headdress) for men. The social elite began to stand out even more significantly in their outward appearance - rich fur coats, deep-throated hats in winter, smart caftans - in the summer the people saw the boyars and wealthy merchants.
Common food was cabbage soup, buckwheat, oatmeal, pea porridge, baked and steamed turnips, onions, garlic, fish, oatmeal jelly; on holidays they ate filled pies, pancakes, eggs, caviar, imported fish, drank beer and honey. In the 50s of the XVI century. tsar's taverns were opened, selling vodka. Rich people had a different table - here and on weekdays there was always caviar and sturgeon, meat (with the exception of fasting days), expensive overseas wines.

Religion

Despite the active actions of the church and the secular authorities that supported it in terms of planting the Christian doctrine, the latter in the 16th century. penetrated deeply only into the environment of the ruling class. Sources indicate that the mass of the working population in the city and village was far from carefully and reluctantly performed church rituals, that folk pagan festivals and rituals like those associated with the celebration of Kupala and which the churchmen could not manage were still very strong and widespread. alter the memory of John the Baptist into an Orthodox rite.
The church tried to attract the people with magnificent rituals and ceremonies, especially on the days of major religious holidays, when solemn prayers, processions of the cross, etc. were held. The churchmen in every possible way spread rumors about all kinds of "miracles" at the icons, relics of the "saints", prophetic "visions". In search of healing from ailments or getting rid of troubles, many people flocked to worship "miraculous" icons and relics, crowded large monasteries on holidays.

Folk art

Folk songs, glorifying the heroes of the capture of Kazan, also reflected the controversial personality of Ivan the Terrible, who appears either as a “fair” tsar, taking under the protection of good fellows from the people and making short work of the hated boyars, or as the patron saint of “Malyuta the villain Skuratovich”. The theme of the struggle with external enemies gave rise to a kind of processing of the ancient Kiev cycle of epics and new legends. Stories about the struggle with the Polovtsy and Tatars merged together, Ilya Muromets turns out to be the winner of the Tatar hero, and Ermak Timofeevich helps in the capture of Kazan. Moreover, the Polish king Stefan Batory appears as a servant of the Tatar "king". Thus, folk art concentrated its heroes - positive and negative - around the capture of Kazan, thereby emphasizing the enormous importance of this event for contemporaries. Let us recall in this regard the words of Academician BD Grekov that “epics are a story told by the people themselves. There may be inaccuracies in chronology, in terms, there may be factual errors ... but the assessment of events here is always correct and cannot be different, since the people were not a simple witness of the events, but the subject of history, who directly created these events. "

Literacy and writing

The formation of a unified state increased the need for literate people needed for the developing apparatus of power. At the Stoglava Cathedral in 1551, it was decided "in the reigning city of Moscow and in all cities ... among the priests, deacons and deacons to establish schools in their homes, so that priests and deacons in each city would betray their children to them for teaching." In addition to clergy, there were also secular "masters" of literacy, who taught literacy for two years, and for this it was supposed to "the master bring porridge and a hryvnia of money." At first, the students completely learned the texts of church books, then they disassembled them by syllables and letters. Then they taught writing, as well as addition and subtraction, and memorized numbers up to a thousand with their letter designation. In the second half of the century, grammar manuals appeared ("A conversation about the teaching of literacy, what is literacy and what is its structure, and for the sake of such a teaching, and what is the acquisition of it, and what should be learned above all") and arithmetic ("Book , recomma is arithmetic in Greek, and algorithmic in German, and tsyfir counting wisdom in Russian ").
Handwritten books were distributed, which remained of great value. In 1600, one small book of 135 pages was exchanged "for a samopal, and for a saber, and for black cloth, and for a simple curtain." Along with parchment, which was not enough, imported paper appeared - from Italy, France, German states, with specific watermarks indicating the time and place of paper production. From paper sheets in government offices, they glued huge long ribbons - the so-called "pillars" (the bottom sheet of each sheet was fastened to the top of the next sheet in the case, and so on until the end of the whole case).

Typography

In the middle of the XVI century. the largest event in the history of Russian enlightenment took place - the founding of book printing in Moscow. The initiative in this matter belonged to Ivan IV and Metropolitan Macarius, and the original purpose of printing was to distribute uniform church books in order to strengthen the authority of religion and church organization in general. Printing began in 1553, and in 1563 a former deacon of one of the Kremlin churches Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets became the head of the state printing house. In 1564 was
published "Apostle" - an outstanding work of medieval printing in its technical and artistic qualities. In 1568, printers were already working in Lithuania, where, according to some scholars, they moved by order of the tsar in order to promote the success of Russia's active actions in the Baltic by distributing church books among the Orthodox population of Lithuania. However, after the Union of Lublin in 1569, the activity of Russian printers in Lithuania ceased. Ivan Fedorov moved to Lvov, where he worked until the end of his life (1583). In Lvov in 1574 he published the first Russian primer, which, along with the alphabet, contained elements of grammar and some reading materials.
In Moscow, after the departure of Fedorov and Mstislavets, book printing continued in other printing houses.

Socio-political thought

The complexity of the socio-political conditions for the formation of a unified Russian state gave rise in the spiritual life of society to an intense search for solutions to large problems - about the nature of state power, about law and "truth", about the place of the church in the state, about land tenure, about the position of the peasants. To this must be added the further spread of heretical teachings, doubts about the validity of religious dogmas, the first glimpses of scientific knowledge.
As elsewhere in the European countries of the period of their unification, Russian public thought associated hopes for the establishment of an ideal government and the elimination of strife and civil strife with a single power. However, the specific ideas about the ideal state did not coincide by any means among the publicists who expressed the moods of different groups - the Peresvetov ideal of a strong sovereign based on the nobility did not at all resemble the dreams of Maxim the Greek about a wise ruler who, together with advisers, would decide state affairs, but the ascetic refusal of “non-possessors "From the riches aroused the furious indignation of the ideologists of the strong church -" Osiflyan ". The acute political sound of social thought was characteristic of all its forms and manifestations. From their very inception, the chronicles had the character of political documents, but now their purpose has grown even more. Going on a campaign to Novgorod, Ivan III specially took with him the clerk Stepan the Bearded, who "knew how to speak" according to the "Russian chroniclers" "Novgorod guilt." In the XVI century. a tremendous amount of work was undertaken to compile new compilations of annals, which included appropriately selected and interpreted information from the local annals. This is how the huge Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles appeared. A notable feature was the widespread use of government materials in the annals - rank records, ambassadorial books, contractual and spiritual letters, article lists about embassies, etc. At the same time, there was an increase in church influence on the annals. This is especially noticeable in the so-called Chronograph of 1512 - an essay dedicated to the history of Orthodox countries, where the idea of ​​the leading position of Orthodox Russia in the Christian world was substantiated.
One of the copies of the Nikon Chronicle was made in the form of a luxuriously illustrated obverse, containing up to 16 thousand illustrations. This copy, apparently intended for the training and education of young members of the royal family, was subsequently subjected to repeated revisions; according to scientists, it was done by Ivan the Terrible, who retroactively introduced into history the denunciations of the past “betrayals” of his opponents, who were executed during the years of the oprichnina.

Historical stories appeared, dedicated to the events of the recent past - the Kazan "capture", the defense of Pskov, also sustained in the spirit of militant church ideology and glorifying Ivan the Terrible.
A new historical work in the form of presentation was the "Book of Degrees", where the material was distributed not by years, but by seventeen "degrees" - according to the periods of the reign of the great dukes and metropolitans from the "beginning of Russia", which was considered the reign of the first Christian princes Olga and Vladimir, to Ivan the Terrible. The compiler - Metropolitan Athanasius - with the selection and arrangement of the material, emphasized the exceptional importance of the church in the history of the country, the close alliance between secular and spiritual rulers in the past.
The question of the position of the church in a single state occupied the main place in the ongoing in the first half of the 16th century. disputes between "non-possessors" and "Osiflians". The ideas of Nil Sorsky were developed in his works by Vassian Patrikeev, who in 1499, together with his father, Prince Yu.I.
Forcibly tonsured a monk and exiled to the distant Kirillovo-Belozersky monastery, but already in 1508 he was returned from exile and even approached at one time by Vasily III. Vassian criticized contemporary monasticism, the inconsistency of his life with Christian ideals, and saw this discrepancy primarily in the fact that monks tenaciously cling to earthly goods.
The views of Vassian Patrikeyev were largely shared by the well-educated translator and publicist Maxim the Greek (Mikhail Trivolis), who was invited to Russia in 1518 to translate and correct liturgical books. In his works (there are more than a hundred), Maxim the Greek proved the illegality of the clergy's references to the writings of the "holy fathers" regarding the right to own land (in the heroic texts it was about vineyards), he denounced the plight of the peasants who lived on the monastic lands. An unattractive picture of the Russian church appears from the pages of the writings of Maxim the Greek. Monks quarrel, wage long litigations over villages and lands, get drunk, indulge in a luxurious life, have a completely non-Christian attitude to the peasants living on their lands, entangle them with heavy usurious debts, the churches spend the wealth for their own pleasure, lavish rituals of sanctimoniousness cover up their deeply unrighteous life.
Boyar F.I.Karpov, a fellow-thinker of Maxim Grek, who was also very concerned about the state of the Russian Church, even put forward the idea of ​​the need to unite the Orthodox Church with the Catholic Church as a means of overcoming existing vices.
Metropolitan Daniel of Osiflane waged an energetic struggle against all "free-thinkers". Not only heretics and non-possessors were severely condemned by Daniel, but also all those who indulged in secular amusements. Playing the harp and domra, singing "demonic songs" and even playing chess and checkers were declared as vicious as foul language and drunkenness; beautiful clothes and shaving were condemned in the same way. At the insistence of Daniel, in 1531 another church council was held against Maxim the Greek and Vassian Patrikeev. The latter died in the monastery, and Maxim the Greek was released only after the death of Vasily II.
Daniel's successor, Metropolitan Macarius, organized a large literary work aimed at strengthening the religious influence on the spiritual culture of the country. The largest undertaking in this regard was the creation of a grandiose collection of the Lives of the Saints - the Great Chetya-Minei for daily reading. By creating this book, the clergy wanted to practically absorb all the books "read in Russia", to give all bookishness a strictly sustained religious character. The church, with the support of the state, continued its offensive against dissidents. In 1553, the former abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Artemy, a follower of the teachings of Nil Sorsky, was put on trial for his statements condemning the official church, its money-grubbing and intolerance towards the deluded. The following year, 1554, another church trial took place over the nobleman Matvey Bashkin, who rejected the veneration of icons, was critical of the writings of the "holy fathers", was indignant at the spread of the conversion of people into slaves among Christians. In the same year, the Belozersk monk Theodosia Kosoy was arrested and brought to Moscow for a church trial. A former servant, Theodosius the Kosoy was one of the most radical heretics of the 16th century. He did not recognize the trinity of the deity (a similar course of the so-called antitrinitarians was widespread in Western Europe in connection with the then developing reformation movement), he saw in Christ not a god, but an ordinary human preacher, rejected a significant part of dogmatic literature, considered it contrary to common sense meaning, did not recognize rituals, veneration of icons, the dignity of priests. He did not believe in the "miracles" and "prophecies" of Theodosius, condemned the persecution of dissidents, opposed the acquisitiveness of the church. In a positive regard, the dreams of Theodosius did not go further than the vague ideals of early Christianity, from the standpoint of which Theodosius spoke of the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility, therefore, of the dependence of some people on others, and even the need for equal treatment of all peoples and faiths. Opponents of Theodosius called his sermon "servant teaching." There is some information that makes it possible to judge the presence of communities of followers of Theodosius the Kosoy. The trial of Theodosius the Kosim did not take place, because he managed to escape to Lithuania, but the persecution of the heretics continued.

The beginnings of scientific knowledge and the church's struggle with them

With the activities of heretics at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. were connected, albeit in a very narrow circle, the first attempts to go beyond the canonical ideas about the world around them. Contrary to the widespread notion, which has entered even in church "Easter" (indicators of Easter days in future years), that in 7000 (according to the then chronology "from the creation of the world", according to the modern - 1492) "the end of the world will come ", The heretics did not believe in the coming of the" end of the world. " They did a lot of astronomy and had conversion tables for calculating lunar phases and eclipses.
The clergy were hostile to all these occupations, considering them "witchcraft" and "sorcery." The monk Philotheus, who wrote to Vasily III about Moscow - "the third Rome", admitted that it is possible, of course, to calculate the time of the future eclipse, but this is useless, "there is a lot of food, but the feat is small", "it is not appropriate for the Orthodox to experience this." Hostility towards secular, non-religious knowledge and towards ancient culture in particular was frankly manifested in the arrogant recognition of Philotheus that he was “a rural man and ignorant in wisdom, was not born in Athens, neither learned from wise philosophers, nor with wise philosophers in conversation have not been. " This is how the Russian clergy treated the ancient culture just at the time when the rise of Western European culture was taking place during the Renaissance, marked by a lively and strong interest in the ancient heritage. It was these churchmen who developed the political theory of the Russian state, they prepared for him a path of isolation from advanced culture, stagnation in ancient orders and customs - for the glory of "true", Orthodox Christianity. This makes the bold thought of Russian heretics and other "free-thinkers" of the late 15th-16th centuries all the more vivid. Heretics of the late 15th century were familiar with the works of medieval and ancient philosophy, they knew the basic concepts of logic and some questions of theoretical mathematics (the concept of a plane, line, indivisible numbers, infinity). The head of the Moscow heretics, Fyodor Kuritsyn, pondered the question - is the will of man free, or are his actions predetermined by God? He came to the conclusion that free will ("the autocracy of the soul") exists, that it is the more, the more literate and educated a person is.
The rudiments of scientific knowledge existed in the 16th century. in the form of purely practical information on various daily activities. The age-old practice of peasant farmers has long developed criteria for assessing soils - now they have been used to assess the solvency of lands "good", "average", "bad". State needs have caused the need to measure land areas. In 1556, a manual was drawn up for scribes who described the allotted land, with the attachment of survey marks. In the second half of the century, the manual "On the earth's layout, how to make up the earth" appeared, which explained how to calculate the area of ​​a square, rectangle, trapezium, parallelogram, and the corresponding drawings were attached.
The development of trade and money circulation led to the development of practical knowledge in the field of arithmetic. It is no coincidence that the terminology connects arithmetic operations with trading operations: the term was called in the 16th century. "List", decreasing - "business list". In the XVI century. knew how to perform actions on numbers with fractions, used the signs + and -. However, mathematical and other specific knowledge in the Middle Ages was very often clothed in a mystical-religious shell. The triangular figure, for example, was interpreted as a symbolic embodiment of the movement of the "holy spirit" following within the "holy trinity" from the "god-father" at the apex of the triangle.
Fantastic ideas about the Earth were quite widespread. In the popular translated book "Christian Topography" by the Alexandrian merchant of the 6th century. Cosma Indikoplov said that the sky is round, the Earth is quadrangular, it stands on endless water, there is an earth with paradise across the ocean, there is a pillar to heaven in the ocean and the devil himself is tied to this pillar, who is angry, and from this all sorts of disasters occur.
The mystical interpretation of natural phenomena was very widespread, there were special books - "astrology", "lunar people", "lightning men", "tremors", "shovels", which contained countless omens and fortune-telling. Although the church formally condemned everything that went beyond the framework of religious worldviews, nevertheless, a rare secular feudal lord did not contain domestic "soothsayers" and "healers" at his court. Ivan the Terrible was not devoid of superstitious feelings, who often feverishly sought reassurance in his worries in a variety of fortune-telling.
But along with this, concrete practical knowledge was accumulated and developed.
In 1534, "Vertograd" was translated from German, containing a lot of medical information. During the translation "Vertograd" was supplemented with some Russian information. In this, very common in the XVI century. the handwritten book contained the rules of personal hygiene, caring for the sick (special attention was paid to avoiding drafts, as well as "so as not to get sick, and the brain would not dry out in the head"), numerous information about medicinal plants, their properties and places of distribution. There are special instructions on the treatment of a beaten person "from whipping", and it is precisely "from Moscow whipping, not rural" - feudal reality is reflected here in all its cruelty. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Moscow was set up to serve the royal family, in which the Englishman James French, invited by Ivan the Terrible, worked.
The expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the growth of its ties with foreign countries have promoted the development of geographical knowledge. Along with the naive notions of the "quadrangular Earth", concrete information about the location of various parts of the Earth began to appear.
In 1496 the Moscow ambassador Grigory Istomin sailed on sailing ships from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Bergen and Copenhagen, opening the possibility of relations between Russia and Western Europe by the Northern Sea Route. In 1525, one of the most educated people of that time, the diplomat Dmitry Gerasimov, went abroad. He expressed the idea that India, which attracted the Europeans with its riches, as well as China can be reached through the Arctic Ocean. In accordance with this assumption, the English expedition of Willoughby and Chancellor was later equipped, which in the 50s of the XVI century. arrived in Kholmogory and opened the Northern route of sea communication with England.
The "Trade Book", compiled in the second half of the 16th century, contained information about other countries necessary for foreign trade. In the XVI century. Pomors sailed to Novaya Zemlya and Grumant (Spitsbergen).

Architecture

The rise of Russian culture manifested itself in many ways. Significant changes have taken place in construction technology and the art of architecture closely related to it.
Strengthening of Russian statehood already at the end of the 15th century. stimulated the restoration of the ancients and the construction of new buildings of the Moscow Kremlin, the cathedral of the beginning of the XIII century. in Yuryev Polsky and some others. Stone construction, although still to a small extent, began to be used for the construction of residential buildings. The use of bricks opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects: In the course of the unification of the Russian lands, an all-Russian architectural style began to form. The leading role in it belonged to Moscow, however, with the active influence of local schools and traditions. Thus, the Dukhovskaya Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, built in 1476, combined the techniques of Moscow and Pskov architecture.
The restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin was of great importance for the development of Russian architecture. In 1471, after the victory over Novgorod, Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip decided to build a new Cathedral of the Dormition, which was to surpass the ancient Novgorod Sophia in its grandeur and reflect the power of the Russian state unified by Moscow. At first, the cathedral was built by Russian craftsmen, but the building collapsed. The craftsmen had no experience in the construction of large buildings for a long time. Then Ivan I I I ordered to find a master in Italy. In 1475, the famous engineer and architect Aristotle Fioravanti came to Moscow. The Italian master got acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture and by 1479 had built a new Cathedral of the Assumption - an outstanding work of Russian architecture, enriched with elements of Italian building technology and architecture of the Renaissance. Solemnly stately, embodying the power of the young Russian state in its forms, the building of the cathedral became the main religious and political building of the grand-ducal Moscow, a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 15th century.
For the reconstruction of the Kremlin, masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Rufsro, Aleviz Milanets and others were invited from Italy. under their leadership, new walls and towers (preserved to this day) were erected for the Kremlin, which expanded its territory to 26.5 hectares. At the same time, its internal layout was formed. In the center was Cathedral Square with the monumental building of the Assumption Cathedral and the high bell tower of Ivan the Great (architect Bon Fryazin, 1505 - 1508), completed at the beginning of the 17th century. On the southwestern side of the square, the Annunciation Cathedral appeared, which was part of the palace grand ducal ensemble. This cathedral was built by Pskov masters in 1484-1489. The techniques of its external decoration are borrowed from the Vladimir-Moscow traditions (arcature belts) and from the Pskov ones (patterns of the upper part of the domes). In 1487 - 1491 Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari built the Palace of Facets to receive foreign ambassadors. It was the largest hall at that time. The vaults of the hall rest on a massive pillar in the middle - no other methods of erecting large interiors were known then. The chamber got its name from the "facets" of the external processing of the facade. In 1505-1509 Aleviz built the tomb of the great dukes and members of their families - the Cathedral of Archangel Michael, where the traditions of Moscow architecture (a cube topped with a five-domed) are combined with elegant Italian decor. The zakomar ("shells") finishing technique used by the architect later became a favorite in Moscow architecture.
The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was a unique piece of architecture at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, embodying the greatness, beauty, strength of a people freed from a foreign yoke, who entered the path of political and cultural progress common with the advanced countries of Europe.
In the XVI century. stone churches with hipped roofs were already being built - “for woodwork,” as one of the chronicles says, that is, modeled on numerous wooden hipped roof structures. The material itself - wood - dictated this form of completion of buildings in the form of a tent going up with even edges. In contrast to the Byzantine examples of cross-domed churches with domes in Russia, not only wooden, but also stone hipped-roof churches appeared without domes, without pillars inside, with a single, albeit small, internal space.
In 1532 in the palace village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, to commemorate the birth of the long-awaited heir of Vasily III - Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Terrible, the tent-roofed Church of the Ascension was erected, which is a true masterpiece of Russian and European medieval architecture. The temple, which soared into the sky on a coastal hill near the Moskva River, embodied the idea of ​​moving upward with amazing force.
The crown of Russian architectural culture of the 16th century. became the famous Intercession Cathedral - the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed - on Red Square in Moscow, erected in memory of the capture of Kazan in 1555 - 1560. The nine-domed cathedral is crowned with a large tent, around which are crowded with bright, peculiar-shaped domes of side-chapels, connected by a gallery and located on one platform. The diversity and individuality of the forms of the cathedral gave it a fabulous look and made it a real pearl of Moscow architecture. This great monument of Russian architecture of the 16th century. reflected the wealth of folk talent, the great spiritual uplift that the country was experiencing then, having got rid of the threat of attacks from the most dangerous enemy and going through a period of significant reforms that strengthened the state.
The situation was more complicated in the second half of the 16th century. The strict regulation of architecture by the Osiflian clergy and Ivan the Terrible, who was under their influence in this respect, led partly to a reduction in new construction, partly to the construction of heavy imitations of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral, such as, for example, the cathedrals built in the late 60s and 80s in Trinity-Sergius Monastery and Vologda. Only at the very end of the century did the festive decorative beginning in Russian architecture revive and began to develop, which found its manifestation in the church in Vyazemy near Moscow, the Nativity Cathedral of the Pafnutyev Borovsky Monastery, the so-called "small" cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow.

Painting

The process of development of painting in Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries was approximately the same. The beginning of this period was marked by the flourishing of pictorial art, associated primarily with the activities of the famous master Dionysius. With his assistants, he painted the walls and vaults of the cathedrals of the Pafnutyev and Ferapontov monasteries. Fulfilling the orders of the Metropolitan and the Grand Duke, Dionysius managed to make his painting very elegant, beautiful, festive, despite the static nature of the figures, repetition of compositional techniques, and a complete lack of perspective.
Dionysius's workshop made the so-called "hagiographic" icons, which, in addition to the image of the "saint," also contained small "stamps" on the sides with images of individual episodes strictly according to the text of the "life" of this saint. The icons were dedicated to the Moscow "saints" who played a significant role in the rise of Moscow.
The more the dominance of the Osiflian church became stronger in the spiritual life of the country in the first half and the middle of the 16th century, the more embarrassing was the work of the painters. Increasingly stringent requirements were imposed on them regarding the exact and unconditional adherence to the texts of the Holy Scriptures, Lives and other church literature. Although the cathedral of 1551 indicated the iconic writing of Andrei Rublev as a model, the simple repetition of even works of genius doomed pictorial art to impoverishment of the creative principle.
Painting more and more turned into a simple illustration of this or that text. By means of painting on the walls of the temple, they tried to "retell" the content of the "Holy Scriptures" and "Lives" as accurately as possible. Therefore, the images were overloaded with details, the compositions became fractional, the laconicism of artistic means, which was so characteristic of the artists of the previous time, was lost and created a huge effect on the viewer. Special elders appointed by the church made sure that the painters did not deviate from patterns and rules. The slightest independence in the artistic solution of images caused severe persecution.
The frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral reflected the official idea of ​​the origin and continuity of the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes from Byzantium. On the walls and pillars of the cathedral, the Byzantine emperors and Moscow princes are depicted in magnificent robes. There are also images of ancient thinkers - Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Plutarch and others, but they, firstly, are not painted in ancient, but in Byzantine and even Russian attire, and secondly, scrolls with sayings are put in their hands, as if predicting the appearance of Christ. So, the church tried by falsifying ancient culture to counteract its influence and even use it in its own interests.
Official church ideas were embodied in a large beautiful icon "Militant Church", painted in the middle of the 16th century. to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The success of the Russian state was shown here as the victory of "true Christianity" over the "infidels", "basurmans". The warriors are led by the "saints", they are overshadowed by the Mother of God and the angels. Among those depicted on the icon is the young Tsar Ivan the Terrible. There is an allegorical image - the river symbolizes the source of life, which is Christianity, and an empty reservoir is other religions and deviations from Christianity.
In the conditions of strict regulation of pictorial art, by the end of the century a special trend developed among artists, focusing efforts on the painting technique itself. This was the so-called "Stroganov school" - named after the wealthy merchants and industrialists Stroganovs, who patronized this trend with their orders. In the Stroganov school, the technique of writing, the ability to convey details in a very limited area, external picturesqueness, beauty, and thoroughness of execution were valued. It is not for nothing that the works of artists began to be signed for the first time, so we know the names of the major masters of the Stroganov school - Prokopiy Chirin, Nikifor, Istoma, Nazariy, Fyodor Savin. The Stroganov school satisfied the aesthetic needs of a relatively narrow circle of fine art connoisseurs. The works of the Stroganov school distracted viewers from the religious theme itself and focused their attention on the purely aesthetic side of the work of art. And in Nikifor Savin's work, the viewer also met with a subtly poeticized Russian landscape.
Democratic tendencies manifested themselves among painters associated with the townspeople circles of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod. On the icons they painted, at times, instead of the "biblical" ones, objects and characters appeared that were well known to the viewer and the artist from the life around them. Here you can find an image of the Mother of God, similar to a Russian peasant woman, a rather real image of the log walls and towers of Russian monasteries.
Accuracy in the transmission of the details of the texts of the chronicles and the various stories and legends included in them led to the development of the art of book miniature. The obverse chronicle vaults, numbering on their pages thousands of miniatures, conveyed in great detail the real pictures of historical events. The art of book design, inherited from the Old Russian scribes, continued to develop successfully in the 16th century. Artistic sewing reached a great development, especially in the workshop of the Staritsky princes. Skillfully created compositions, selection of colors, delicate work made the works of these masters outstanding monuments of artistic creativity of the 16th century. At the end of the century, sewing began to be decorated with precious stones.

Music and theater

Church singing of the 16th century characterized by the assertion of "znamenny" - single-voice choral singing. But at the same time, the church could not ignore the folk musical culture. Therefore, in the XVI century. and in the church polyphonic singing began to spread with its brightness and richness of shades.
The polyphonic singing apparently came from Novgorod. Novgorodian Ivan Shai-durov invented special "banners" - signs for recording a melody with "chants", "divorces" and "translations".
In view of the stubborn opposition of the church to instrumental music, Western European organs, harpsichords and clavichords, which appeared at the end of the 15th century, did not receive any widespread distribution. Only among the people, in spite of all the obstacles, they played wind instruments everywhere - bagpipes, snuffs, horns, flutes, pipes; strings - beeps, harp, domra, balalaikas; percussion - tambourines and rattles. In the army, pipes and surnas were also used to transmit combat signals.
In the folk environment, the rich traditions of theatrical art were widespread. The Church tried to oppose them with some elements of theatrical "action" in divine services, when certain scenes from the so-called "sacred history" were presented, such as the "cave action" - the martyrdom of three youths at the hands of the unrighteous "Chaldean king."

B.A. Rybakov - "History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 18th century." - M., "High School", 1975.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but affect the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was mainly made of wood, but its principles were applied in. Fortifications, fortresses were restored, and kremlin were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures is the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560). Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the hip-roof style, which was widespread at that time (typical for wooden temples of Ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and the White City in Moscow was surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To painting of the 16th century. in Russia it is mainly icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The most striking monument of icon painting was the "Militant Church". The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, one could feel the influence of the West. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Typography

In the 16th century. the first printing house appeared in Russia, printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, even though their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556. By the "anonymous" Moscow printing house. refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature of Russia of the 16th century includes "Stories of the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Menaei", containing all revered in Russia works for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection, faded into the background) ...

Fashion

In the 16th century. in Russia, boyars' clothes, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes lent pomp and majesty to the image.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Russia, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a woman's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions, a shirt, a kitsch and a poneva skirt.

The general outfit (average) can be considered a shirt length up to the hem of a sundress, a swing sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun linen (up to mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.