The ancient Greeks admired the beauty of the human body. They appreciated everything beautiful, and believed that the main thing in a person is the harmony of external appearance and internal qualities. This was reflected in their classical sculpture: in the statues of the Olympian gods and heroes, depicted with ideal bodily forms.

Sculptures of Ancient Greece and Rome

The best period in the creation of ancient Greek sculptural masterpieces is considered to be the 6th-5th century. BC. The works of art were created according to the principle of symmetry, the poses of the statues were uncomplicated, and the face radiated a joyful smile. Later, during the era of classicism, sculptors created delightful statues in more varied forms and poses.
There were many plastic schools in ancient Greece. In the classical period, the most famous school of sculpture was c. The greatest sculptor of this time, Phidias, is the author of the sculptural masterpieces of the Parthenon. In the Hellenistic era, other centers of plastic art began to appear - Rhodes, Alexandria and Pergamum. The most famous sculptors of that period are Polydor, Athenodor, Agesandr, Hares. The famous "Aphrodite of Milo" was created by Agesander. Hares is the author of one of the seven "wonders of the world" - a huge statue of the "Colossus of Rhodes".
Ancient Roman sculpture is only an imitation and continuation of Greek art. All the masters of sculpture in ancient Rome were Greeks. The Roman style differs from the Greek in greater coarseness, coldness and realism in images.

Sculptors of Ancient Rome

The history of Rome has preserved a small number of names of famous sculptors. But, at the same time, there are a lot of statues in the city, some of which were brought from and. In the ancient Roman period, art workers - painters and sculptors, were equated with artisans, their work was considered humiliating. At this time, a sculptural portrait appears, depicting a specific person, and not a deity. One of the most famous statues of Octavian

INTRODUCTION

The problems of the history of Roman culture have attracted and are attracting close attention of both wide circles of readers and specialists in various fields of science. This interest is largely determined by the enormous value of the cultural heritage that Rome left to subsequent generations.

The accumulation of new material allows us to take a fresh look at a number of well-established, traditional ideas about Roman culture. General cultural changes were reflected in art, respectively, affecting sculpture.

The sculpture of ancient Rome, like that of ancient Greece, developed within the framework of a slave society. And they adhere to the sequence - first Greece, then Rome. Roman sculpture continued the traditions of the Hellenic masters.

Roman sculpture has gone through four stages of its development:

1. The origins of Roman sculpture

2. Formation of Roman sculpture (VIII - I centuries BC)

3. The heyday of Roman sculpture (1st - 2nd centuries)

4. The crisis of Roman sculpture (III - IV centuries)

And at each of these stages, Roman sculpture underwent changes associated with the cultural development of the country. Each stage reflects the time of its era with its features in style, genre and direction in sculptural art, which are manifested in the works of sculptors.

ORIGINS OF ROMAN SCULPTURE

1.1 Sculpture of Italians

“In ancient Rome, sculpture was limited mainly to historical relief and portraiture. The plastic forms of Greek athletes are always presented openly. Images, like a praying Roman, throwing the hem of his robe over his head, are for the most part enclosed in themselves, concentrated. If the Greek masters deliberately broke with the specific uniqueness of features for the sake of conveying the broadly understood essence of the person being portrayed - a poet, orator or commander, then Roman masters in sculptural portraits focused on the personal, individual characteristics of a person. "

The Romans paid less attention to the art of plastics than the Greeks of that time. Like other Italic tribes of the Apennine peninsula, their own monumental sculpture (they brought themselves a lot of Hellenic statues) was rare for them; dominated by small bronze figurines of gods, geniuses, priests and priestesses, kept in home sanctuaries and brought to temples; but the portrait became the main type of plastic.

1.2 Etruscan sculpture

Plastics played a significant role in the everyday and religious life of the Etruscans: temples were decorated with statues, sculptural and relief sculptures were installed in tombs, interest arose in the portrait, and decor was also characteristic. The profession of a sculptor in Etruria, however, was hardly held in high esteem. The names of the sculptors have hardly survived to this day; only known by Pliny, who worked at the end of the 6th - 5th century. master Vulka.

THE FORMATION OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (VIII - I CENTURY BC)

“During the years of the mature and Late Republic, various types of portraits were formed: statues of the Romans wrapped in a toga and making a sacrifice (the best example is in the Vatican Museum), military leaders in heroic form with the image of a number of military armor (a statue from Tivoli of the Roman National Museum), noble nobles demonstrating antiquity by a kind of busts of ancestors that they hold in their hands (repetition of the 1st century AD in the Palazzo of the Conservatives), orators delivering speeches to the people (bronze statue of Aulus Metellus, executed by an Etruscan master). In statuary portrait sculpture there were still strong non-Roman influences, in the tombstone portrait sculptures, where, obviously, everything alien was less allowed, there were few of them. And although one must think that the tombstones were first executed under the guidance of Hellenic and Etruscan masters, apparently, the customers dictated their desires and tastes in them more strongly. The tombstones of the Republic, which were horizontal slabs with niches in which portrait statues were placed, are extremely simple. Two, three, and sometimes five people were depicted in a clear sequence. Only at first glance they seem - because of the monotony of poses, the location of the folds, the movement of the hands - similar to each other. There is not a single person like the other, and they are related by their characteristic captivating restraint of feelings, a sublime stoic state in the face of death. "

The masters, however, not only conveyed individual characteristics in sculptural images, but made it possible to feel the tension of the harsh era of wars of conquest, civil strife, continuous anxieties and unrest. In the portraits, the sculptor's attention is drawn, first of all, to the beauty of the volumes, the strength of the skeleton, the backbone of the plastic image.

THE FLOWER OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (I - II CENTURIES)

3.1 Time of the August principate

During the years of Augustus, portrait painters paid less attention to the unique features of the face, smoothed out individual originality, emphasized in it something common, common to all, likening one subject to another, in a type pleasing to the emperor. Typical standards were created, as it were.

“This influence is especially evident in the heroized statues of Augustus. The most famous is his marble statue from Prima Porta. The emperor is depicted as calm, majestic, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; in the clothes of a Roman general, he seemed to appear before his legions. Its shell is adorned with allegorical reliefs, the cloak is thrown over the hand holding a spear or wand. August is depicted bareheaded and with bare legs, which is known to be a tradition of Greek art, conventionally representing gods and heroes naked or half-naked. The staging of the figure uses the motives of the Hellenistic male figures of the school of the famous Greek master Lysippos.

The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but, nevertheless, is somewhat idealized, which again comes from Greek portrait sculpture. Such portraits of emperors, intended to decorate forums, basilicas, theaters and thermae, were supposed to embody the idea of ​​the greatness and power of the Roman Empire and the inviolability of the imperial power. The era of Augustus opens a new page in the history of Roman portraiture. "

In portrait sculpture, sculptors now liked to operate with large, little-modeled planes of the cheeks, forehead, and chin. This preference for flatness and the rejection of volumetricity, which manifested itself especially clearly in decorative painting, was reflected at that time in sculptural portraits.

In the time of Augustus, more than before, portraits of women and children, which were very rare before, were created. Most often these were images of the wife and daughter of the princeps, the heirs to the throne appeared in marble and bronze busts and statues of boys. The official nature of such works was recognized by everyone: many wealthy Romans installed such statues in their homes to emphasize their disposition to the ruling family.

3.2 Time Julius - Claudius and Flavius

The essence of art in general and sculpture, in particular, of the Roman Empire began to express itself in full measure in the works of this time.

Monumental sculpture took on forms that were different from Hellenic ones. The desire for concreteness led to the fact that the masters even gave the deities the individual features of the emperor. Rome was decorated with many statues of the gods: Jupiter, Roma, Minerva, Victoria, Mars. The Romans, who appreciated the masterpieces of Hellenic plastic art, sometimes treated them with fetishism.

“During the heyday of the Empire, trophy monuments were created in honor of victories. Two huge marble trophies of Domitian's decorate the balustrade of the Capitol Square in Rome. The huge statues of the Dioscuri in Rome, at the Quirinal are also majestic. The rearing horses, the mighty youths holding the reins, are shown in a decisive stormy movement. "

The sculptors of those years sought, first of all, to amaze a person. During the first period of flourishing of the Empire's art, it was widely spread,

however, chamber sculptures are also marble figurines that adorn the interiors, quite often found during the excavations of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia.

The sculptural portrait of that period developed in several artistic channels. During the years of Tiberius, sculptors adhered to the classicist style that prevailed under Augustus and remained along with new techniques. Under Caligula, Claudius and especially Flavius, the idealizing interpretation of the appearance began to be replaced by a more accurate rendering of facial features and character of a person. It was supported by the republican manner with its sharp expressiveness, which did not disappear at all, but was muffled in the years of Augustus.

“In the monuments belonging to these different trends, one can notice the development of a spatial understanding of volumes and an increase in the eccentric interpretation of the composition. Comparison of three statues of seated emperors: Augustus from Qom (St. Petersburg, Hermitage), Tiberius from Privynnus (Rome. Vatican) and Nerva (Rome. Vatican), convinces that already in the statue of Tiberius, which retains the classicist interpretation of the face, the plastic understanding of forms has changed ... The restraint and formality of the pose of the Kumsky Augustus was replaced by a free, unconstrained position of the body, a soft interpretation of volumes, not opposed to space, but already merged with it. The further development of the plastic-spatial composition of the seated figure can be seen in the statue of Nerva with his torso leaning back, his right hand raised high, and a decisive turn of his head.

Changes also took place in the plastic of erect statues. The statues of Claudius have a lot in common with Augustus of Prima Port, but eccentric tendencies make themselves felt here too. It is noteworthy that some sculptors tried to contrast these spectacular plastic compositions with portrait statues, designed in the spirit of a restrained republican manner: the staging of the figure in a huge portrait of Titus from the Vatican is emphatically simple, the legs rest on full feet, the hands are pressed to the body, only the right one is slightly exposed. "

“If the graphic principle prevailed in the classicizing portrait art of the time of Augustus, now sculptors recreated the individual appearance and character of nature by voluminous modeling of forms. The skin became denser, more prominent, hiding the structure of the head, which is distinct in the republican portraits. The plasticity of the sculptural images turned out to be richer and more expressive. This manifested itself even in the provincial portraits of Roman rulers that emerged on the distant periphery ”.

The style of the imperial portraits was also imitated by private ones. Generals, rich freedmen, usurers tried to do everything - by posture, movement, demeanor to resemble the rulers; sculptors imparted pride to the seating of the heads, and decisiveness to turns, without softening, however, the sharp, far from always attractive features of the individual appearance; after the harsh norms of August classicism, art began to value the uniqueness and complexity of physiognomic expressiveness. A noticeable departure from the Greek norms that prevailed in the years of Augustus, is explained not only by the general evolution, but also by the desire of the masters to free themselves from foreign principles and methods, to reveal their Roman characteristics.

In the marble portraits, as before, the pupils, lips, possibly hair were tinted with paint.

In those years, more often than before, female sculptural portraits were created. In the images of the wives and daughters of emperors, as well as noble Roman women, the masters

at first they followed the classicist principles that prevailed under Augustus. Then, complex hairstyles began to play an increasing role in women's portraits, and the importance of plastic decor manifested itself more strongly than in men's portraits. The portrait painters of Domitia Longina, using high hairstyles in the treatment of faces, however, often adhered to the classicist manner, idealizing features, smoothing the surface of the marble, softening as much as possible the harshness of the individual appearance. “A magnificent monument to the late Flavian times is a bust of a young Roman woman from the Capitoline Museum. In the depiction of her curly locks, the sculptor moved away from the flatness visible in the portraits of Domitia Longina. In portraits of elderly Roman women, the opposition to the classicist manner was stronger. The woman in the Vatican portrait is depicted by the Flavian sculptor with all impartiality. Modeling a puffy face with bags under the eyes, deep wrinkles on sunken cheeks, squinting, seemingly watery eyes, thinning hair - all reveal frightening signs of old age.

3.3 Time of Troyan and Adrian

During the second period of the heyday of Roman art - during the early Antonines - Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138) - the empire remained militarily strong and prospered economically.

“Round sculpture in the years of Adrian classicism imitated Hellenic in many ways. It is possible that the huge statues of the Dioscuri, dating back to the Greek originals, flanking the entrance to the Roman Capitol, arose in the first half of the 2nd century. They lack the dynamism of the Dioscuri from the Quirinal; they are calm, restrained and confidently lead the reins of meek and obedient horses. Some monotony, lethargy of forms make you think

that they are the creation of Hadrian's classicism. The size of the statues (5.50m - 5.80m) is also characteristic of the art of this time, which was striving for monumentalization. "

In the portraits of this period, two stages can be distinguished: Trajan's, characterized by a gravitation towards republican principles, and Adrian's, in the plastic of which there is more adherence to Greek models. Emperors appeared in the guise of generals chained in armor, in the pose of sacrificing priests, in the form of naked gods, heroes or warriors.

“In the busts of Trajan, who can be recognized by the parallel strands of hair descending on his forehead and the volitional fold of his lips, calm planes of the cheeks and a certain sharpness of features always prevail, especially noticeable both in Moscow and in the Vatican monuments. The energy concentrated in a person is clearly expressed in the Petersburg busts: a hunchback-nosed Roman - Sallust, a young man with a determined look, and a lictor. " The surface of the faces in the marble portraits of Trajan's time conveys the calmness and inflexibility of people; they seem to be cast in metal rather than carved in stone. Subtly perceiving physiognomic shades, Roman portrait painters created far from unambiguous images. The bureaucratization of the entire system of the Roman Empire also left its mark on the faces. Tired, indifferent eyes and dry, tightly compressed lips of a man in a portrait from the National Museum

Naples is characterized by a man of a difficult era who subordinated his emotions to the cruel will of the emperor. Women's images are filled with the same feeling of restraint, volitional tension, only occasionally softened by light irony, thoughtfulness or concentration.

The appeal to the Greek aesthetic system under Hadrian is an important phenomenon, but in essence this second wave of classicism after the August wave was even more external than the first. Even under Hadrian, classicism was only a mask, under which it did not die, but the actual Roman attitude to form developed. The originality of the development of Roman art, with its pulsating manifestations of either classicism, or the actual Roman essence, with its spatiality of forms and authenticity, called verism, is evidence of the very contradictory nature of artistic thinking in late antiquity.

3.4 Time of the last Antonines

The late period of the heyday of Roman art, which began in the last years of the reign of Hadrian and the reign of Antoninus Pius and lasted until the end of the 2nd century, was characterized by the fading of pathos and pomp in artistic forms. This period is marked by an effort in the cultural sphere of individualistic tendencies.

“The sculptural portrait underwent great changes at that time. The monumental round plastic of the late Antonines, while preserving the Adrian traditions, still testified to the fusion of ideal heroic images with specific characters, most often the emperor or his entourage, to the glorification or deification of an individual. The faces of deities in huge statues were given the features of emperors, monumental equestrian statues were cast, a model of which is the statue of Marcus Aurelius, the splendor of the equestrian monument was enhanced by gilding. However, even in the monumental portraits of even the emperor himself, fatigue, philosophical reflection began to be felt. " The art of portraiture, which experienced a kind of crisis in the years of the early Hadrian in connection with the strong classicist trends of the time, entered under the late Antonines in a heyday, which it did not know even in the years of the Republic and the Flavians.

In statuary portraiture, the heroic idealized images that determined the art of the time of Trajan and Adrian continued to be created.

“Since the thirties of the III century. n. NS. in portraiture, new artistic forms are being developed. The depth of psychological characteristics is achieved not by detailing the plastic form, but, on the contrary, by the laconicism, the parsimony of the selection of the most important defining personality traits. Such, for example, is the portrait of Philip the Arabian (Petersburg, Hermitage). The rough surface of the stone conveys well the weathered skin of the "soldier" emperors: generalized lenok, sharp, asymmetrically located folds on the forehead and cheeks, treatment of hair and short beard only with small sharp notches focuses the viewer's attention on the eyes, on the expressive line of the mouth. "

“Portrait painters began to interpret eyes in a new way: the pupils, which they portrayed plastically, cutting into the marble, now gave the look liveliness and naturalness. Slightly covered with wide upper eyelids, they looked melancholy and sad. The look seemed absent-minded and dreamy, obedient submission to the higher, not fully realized mysterious forces prevailed. " Hints of the deep spirituality of the marble mass echoed on the surface in the thoughtfulness of views, the mobility of strands of hair, the tremor of the light bends of the beard and mustache. The portrait painters, performing curly hair, cut deeply into the marble with a drill and sometimes drilled deep internal cavities. Lighted up by the sun's rays, such hairstyles seemed like a mass of living hair.

The artistic image was likened to the real one, they were getting closer and closer

sculptors and to what they especially wanted to depict - to the elusive movements of human feelings and moods.

The masters of that era used various, often expensive materials for their portraits: gold and silver, rock crystal, and also widely spread glass. Sculptors appreciated this material - delicate, transparent, creating beautiful highlights. Even marble under the hands of craftsmen sometimes lost the strength of a stone, and its surface seemed like human skin. A nuanced sense of reality in such portraits made the hair lush and mobile, the skin silky, the fabric of the clothes soft. They polished the marble of a woman's face more carefully than that of a man's; youthfulness was distinguished by texture from senile.

CRISIS OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (III - IV CENTURIES)

4.1 End of the Principate Era

In the development of the art of Late Rome, two stages can be distinguished more or less clearly. The first is the art of the end of the principate (3rd century) and the second is the art of the dominant era (from the beginning of the reign of Diocletian to the fall of the Roman Empire). "In artistic monuments, especially of the second period, one can see the extinction of ancient pagan ideas and the increasing expression of new, Christian ones."

Sculptural portrait in the 3rd century. Has undergone particularly noticeable changes. The statues and busts still retained the techniques of the late Antonines, but

the meaning of the images has already become different. Alertness and suspicion replaced the philosophical thoughtfulness of the characters of the second half of the 2nd century. Tension made itself felt even in the female faces of that time. In portraits in the second

quarter of the 3rd century The volumes were denser, the masters abandoned the gimbal, made the hair with notches, and achieved especially expressive expressiveness of wide-open eyes.

The desire of innovative sculptors by such means to increase the artistic impact of their works caused a reaction in the years of Gallien (mid-3rd century) and a return to the old methods. For two decades, portrait painters again depicted the Romans with curly hair and curly beards, trying at least in artistic forms to revive the old manners and thereby remind of the former greatness of plastic. However, after this short-term and artificial return to Antonin's forms already at the end of the third quarter of the 3rd century. Once again, the desire of sculptors to convey the emotional tension of the inner world of a person with the utmost laconic means was revealed. In the years of bloody feuds and the frequent change of emperors who fought for the throne, portrait painters embodied the shades of complex spiritual experiences in new, then-born forms. Gradually, they were more and more interested not in individual traits, but in those sometimes elusive moods that were already difficult to express in stone, marble, bronze.

4.2 The era of dominance

In the sculptures of the 4th century. pagan and Christian plots coexisted; artists turned to the depiction and praise of not only mythological, but also Christian heroes; continuing what began in the III century. praising the emperors and their family members, they prepared the atmosphere of unbridled panegyrics and worship, characteristic of the Byzantine court ceremonial.

Facial modeling gradually ceased to occupy portrait painters. The spiritual forces of man, which were especially acutely felt in the age when Christianity conquered the hearts of the pagans, seemed cramped in the hard forms of marble and bronze. Awareness of this deep conflict of the era, the impossibility of expressing feelings in plastic materials gave artistic monuments of the 4th century. something tragic.

Widely disclosed in portraits of the IV century. the eyes, looking now sadly and imperiously, now inquiringly and anxiously, warmed with human feelings the cold, numb masses of stone and bronze. Warm and translucent marble became less and less the material for portrait painters; more and more often they chose basalt or porphyry for depicting faces less similar to the qualities of the human body.

CONCLUSION

From all that has been considered, it is clear that sculpture developed within the framework of its time, i.e. she relied very heavily on her predecessors, as well as on the Greek. During the heyday of the Roman Empire, each emperor brought something new to art, something of his own, and along with the art, sculpture changed accordingly.

The antique sculpture is replaced by the Christian one; to replace the more or less unified Greco - Roman sculpture, widespread within the Roman Empire, provincial sculptures with revived local traditions, already close to the "barbarian" ones coming to replace them. A new era in the history of world culture begins, in which Roman and Greco-Roman sculpture is only one of the components.

In European art, ancient Roman works often served as a kind of standards, which were imitated by architects, sculptors, glass blowers and ceramists. The invaluable artistic heritage of ancient Rome continues to live on as a school of classical craftsmanship for contemporary art.

LITERATURE

1. Vlasov V. Portrait of Antonin Pius.- Art, 1968, No. 6

2. Voshchina A.I. Antique art, M., 1962

3. Voshchinin A. I. Roman portrait. L., 1974

4. Dobroklonsky M.V., Chubova A.P., History of art of foreign countries, M., 1981

5. Sokolov GI Antique Black Sea region. L., 1973

6. Sokolov GI The Art of Ancient Rome, M., 1985.

7. Sokolov GI Art of the East and Antiquity. M., 1977

8. Shtaerman E.M. Crisis of the 3rd century in the Roman Empire - Ref. Stories, 1977, no. 5

One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave mankind the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there is no people who inhabited this state, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. April 21, the day the city was founded on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the VIII century BC. NS. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikius the Ancient, who stopped it at the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were held.

From west to east, through the entire Roman Forum, runs the sacred road of the empire - Via Appia, or the Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings of the Tarquinean clan. Several times he died during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome have been rebuilt, which was destroyed by fire." It was a magnificent building, which was adorned with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. NS. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to Flavias: Vespasian and his son Titus. It was 33 meters long and 22 meters wide. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times was connected with the House of the Vestals. The Sacred Fire was constantly maintained in the interior. Initially, it was guarded by the king's daughters, then they were replaced by the Vestal priestesses, who also conducted services in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with the symbols of the empire. The building was rounded in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that there was a smoke outlet in the roof, fires often broke out in the temple. It was rescued several times, reconstructed, but in 394 the emperor Theodosius ordered to close it. Gradually, the building was dilapidated and fell into decay.

Trajan's Column

Monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. A marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the "body" of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.

The column's trunk spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells about Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the winged figure of Victoria writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, details of weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to the Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube as a majestic old man, Night as a woman with a veiled face, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. NS. under the Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT "-" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this. " Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the majesty of the artistic image. The building, devoid of external decorations of a cylindrical shape, is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly matches the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportion to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that make up the monolith of the wall, between which are niches that give the massive building an airy feeling. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. The circular opening in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich interior decoration. Everything has come down to this day almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings in Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, with smaller ones on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall in 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman masters were installed on the first two tiers.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators' recreation, where loud traders sold various goods. Outside, the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led into the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were the privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiatorial battles took place, but also real sea battles, was made of wood.

Today, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying says: "While the Colosseum is standing, Rome will also stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome and the whole world will disappear along with it."

Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitation, etc. Among the many different rooms on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, having washed, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch the wrestling and gymnastic exercises, could stretch themselves; others wandered through the park, admired the statues, sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portune and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - Bych. In early republican times, ships docked here and a brisk livestock trade was conducted, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with columns of the Ionic order. The temple has been well preserved since around 872 A.D. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitsiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m and is decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Field of Mars

"Champ de Mars" - this was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant afterwards, while the rest of the field was built up.

Hadrian's mausoleum

The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with a mound, the top of which was adorned with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god, ruling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have changed its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartments, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and the Secret Archives. From the terrace of the castle, over which the figure of the Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient structures used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period. In total, there are more than 60 different catacombs in Rome (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. The labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to the other, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.

The city of Rome was created, according to legend, by the twins Rom and Remus on seven hills back in the 8th century. BC .. It contains a large number of monuments from the period of the late republic and the imperial era. No wonder the ancient proverb says that "all roads lead to Rome." The name of the city symbolized its greatness and glory, power and splendor, the wealth of culture. Initially, Roman sculptors completely imitated the Greeks, but unlike them, who depicted gods and mythological heroes, the Romans gradually began to work on sculptural portraits of specific people. It is believed that the Roman sculptural portrait is an outstanding achievement of sculpture in ancient Rome. But time passes, and the ancient sculptural portrait begins to change. Since the time of Hadrian (2nd century AD), Roman sculptors no longer paint marble. Along with the development of the architecture of Rome, the sculptural portrait also developed. If we compare it with the portraits of Greek sculptors, then we can observe some differences. In the sculpture of ancient Greece, depicting the image of great commanders, writers, politicians, Greek masters strove to create an image of an ideal, beautiful, harmoniously developed personality that would be a model for all citizens. And in the sculpture of ancient Rome, the masters, when creating a sculptural portrait, focused on the individual image of a person. Let's analyze one sculpture of ancient Rome, this is a famous portrait of the famous commander Pompey, created in the 1st century BC. It is located in Copenhagen in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. This is the image of a middle-aged man with a non-standard face. In it, the sculptor tried to show the individuality of the general's appearance and reveal different sides of his character, namely, a man with a deceitful soul and honest in words. As a rule, portraits of that time only depict very elderly men. As for the portraits of women, young people or children, they could only be found on gravestone steles. A characteristic feature of the sculpture of ancient Rome is clearly traced in the female image. She is not idealized, but accurately conveyed the depicted type. In the very sculpture of Rome, the prerequisites for an accurate depiction of a person are formed. This can be clearly seen in the bronze statue of the orator, made in honor of Aulus Metellus. He was portrayed in a normal and natural pose. When depicted in sculptures, Roman emperors were often idealized. An ancient marble sculpture of Octavian Augustus, who was the first Roman emperor, glorifies him as a commander and ruler of the state (Vatican, Rome). His image symbolizes the strength and power of the state, which was believed to be intended to lead other peoples. That is why the sculptors, depicting emperors, did not entirely try to preserve the portrait resemblance, but used conscious idealization. To create ancient sculptures, the Romans used the sculptures of ancient Greece 5-4 centuries BC as a model, in which they liked the simplicity, bends of lines and the beauty of proportions. The dignified posture of the emperor, expressive hands and fixed gaze, give the ancient sculpture a monumental character. His robe is effectively thrown over his hand, the rod is a symbol of the commander's power. The courageous figure with a muscular body and bared beautiful legs resembles the sculptures of the gods and heroes of ancient Greece. At the feet of Augustus is Cupid, the son of the goddess Venus, from whom, according to legend, the family of Augustus originated. His face is conveyed with great accuracy, but his appearance expresses masculinity, directness and honesty, the ideal of a person is emphasized in him, although, according to historians, August was an accurate and tough politician. The ancient sculpture of the Emperor Vespasian is striking in its realism. This style was adopted by Roman sculptors from the Hellenic. It so happened that the desire to individualize the portrait reached the grotesque, as, for example, in the portrait of the middle class, the rich, cunning usurer of Pompeii Lucius Cecilius Yukunda. Later, in the sculptures of ancient Rome, in particular in the portraits of the second half of the 2nd century, individualism is more clearly traced. The image becomes more spiritualized and refined, the eyes, as it were, contemplate the viewer. The sculptor achieved this by emphasizing the eyes with sharply marked pupils. Among the sculptures of ancient Rome, the famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius is recognized as one of the best creations of this era. It was poured out of bronze around 170. In the 16th century, the great Michelangelo placed his work on Capitol Hill in Ancient Rome. She served as a model for the creation of various equestrian monuments in many European countries. The Creator portrayed Marcus Aurelius in simple clothes, in a cloak, without a sign of imperial greatness. Marcus Aurelius was an emperor, he spent his whole life on campaigns, and he was portrayed by Michelangelo in the clothes of a simple Roman. The emperor was a model of ideal and humanity. Looking at this ancient sculpture, everyone can note that the emperor has a high intellectual culture. Depicting Marcus Aurelius, the sculptor conveyed the mood of a person, he feels disagreements and struggle in the surrounding reality and tries to move away from them into the world of dreams and personal emotions. This ancient sculpture summarizes the features of the worldview that were characteristic of the entire era, when disappointment in life values ​​prevails in the minds of the inhabitants of Rome. His masterpieces reflect a kind of conflict between an individual and society, which was provoked by a deep socio-political crisis that persecuted the Roman Empire in that historical era. The power of the state was constantly undermined by the frequent change of emperors. The middle of the 3rd century for the Roman Empire was a very difficult crisis period, it was almost on the verge between collapse and death. All these harsh events are reflected in the reliefs that adorned Roman sarcophagi in the 3rd century. On them we can see pictures of the battle between the Romans and the barbarians. In this historical era, the army plays an important role in Rome, which is the most important pillar of the emperor's power. As a result of these events, the sculptures of ancient Rome are modified, the rulers are given more coarse and cruel forms of the face, the idealization of the person disappears. The ancient marble sculpture of the Emperor Caracalla is devoid of restraint. His eyebrows close in anger, a piercing, suspicious look from under the brows, nervously compressed lips make one think about the merciless cruelty, nervousness and irritability of the Emperor Caracalla. The ancient sculpture depicts a grim tyrant. The relief reached great popularity in the 2nd century. It was used to decorate Trajan's forum and the famous memorial column. The column is located on a plinth with an Ionic base, decorated with a laurel wreath. At the top of the column was a gilded bronze statue. In the base of the column, his ashes were placed in an urn of gold. The reliefs on the column form twenty-three turns and reach two hundred meters in length. The ancient sculpture belongs to one master, but he had many assistants who studied the Hellenistic art of various directions. This dissimilarity is reflected in the depiction of the bodies and heads of the Dacians. The multi-figured composition, consisting of more than two hundred figures, is subordinated to a single idea. It reflected the power, organization, endurance and discipline of the Roman army - the winner. Trajan was portrayed ninety times. Dacians appear before us as brave, brave, but not organized barbarians. Their images were very expressive. Emotions of Dacians openly come out. This sculpture of ancient Rome in the form of relief was brightly decorated with gilded details. If we abstract, then one could assume that all this is a bright fabric. At the end of the century, the features of a change in style are clearly visible. This process develops intensively in 3-4 centuries. Ancient sculptures created in the 3rd century absorbed the ideas and thoughts of the people of that time. Roman art ended a huge period of ancient culture. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern. But all this did not undermine the power and existence of Roman art, its traditions continued to live on. The artistic images of the sculptures of ancient Rome inspired the creators of the Renaissance period. The most famous masters of the 17-19 centuries took an example from the heroic and austere art of Rome.

ORIGINS OF ROMAN SCULPTURE

1.1 Sculpture of Italians

“In ancient Rome, sculpture was limited mainly to historical relief and portraiture. The plastic forms of Greek athletes are always presented openly. Images, like a praying Roman, throwing the hem of his robe over his head, are for the most part enclosed in themselves, concentrated. If the Greek masters deliberately broke with the specific uniqueness of features for the sake of conveying the broadly understood essence of the person being portrayed - a poet, orator or commander, then Roman masters in sculptural portraits focused on the personal, individual characteristics of a person. "

The Romans paid less attention to the art of plastics than the Greeks of that time. Like other Italic tribes of the Apennine peninsula, their own monumental sculpture (they brought themselves a lot of Hellenic statues) was rare for them; dominated by small bronze figurines of gods, geniuses, priests and priestesses, kept in home sanctuaries and brought to temples; but the portrait became the main type of plastic.

1.2 Etruscan sculpture

Plastics played a significant role in the everyday and religious life of the Etruscans: temples were decorated with statues, sculptural and relief sculptures were installed in tombs, interest arose in the portrait, and decor was also characteristic. The profession of a sculptor in Etruria, however, was hardly held in high esteem. The names of the sculptors have hardly survived to this day; only known by Pliny, who worked at the end of the 6th - 5th century. master Vulka.

THE FORMATION OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (VIII - I CENTURY BC)

“During the years of the mature and Late Republic, various types of portraits were formed: statues of the Romans wrapped in a toga and making a sacrifice (the best example is in the Vatican Museum), military leaders in heroic form with the image of a number of military armor (a statue from Tivoli of the Roman National Museum), noble nobles demonstrating antiquity by a kind of busts of ancestors that they hold in their hands (repetition of the 1st century AD in the Palazzo of the Conservatives), orators delivering speeches to the people (bronze statue of Aulus Metellus, executed by an Etruscan master). In statuary portrait sculpture there were still strong non-Roman influences, in the tombstone portrait sculptures, where, obviously, everything alien was less allowed, there were few of them. And although one must think that the tombstones were first executed under the guidance of Hellenic and Etruscan masters, apparently, the customers dictated their desires and tastes in them more strongly. The tombstones of the Republic, which were horizontal slabs with niches in which portrait statues were placed, are extremely simple. Two, three, and sometimes five people were depicted in a clear sequence. Only at first glance they seem - because of the monotony of poses, the location of the folds, the movement of the hands - similar to each other. There is not a single person like the other, and they are related by their characteristic captivating restraint of feelings, a sublime stoic state in the face of death. " The masters, however, not only conveyed individual characteristics in sculptural images, but made it possible to feel the tension of the harsh era of wars of conquest, civil strife, continuous anxieties and unrest. In the portraits, the sculptor's attention is drawn, first of all, to the beauty of the volumes, the strength of the skeleton, the backbone of the plastic image.

THE FLOWER OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (I - II CENTURIES)

3.1 Time of the August principate

During the years of Augustus, portrait painters paid less attention to the unique features of the face, smoothed out individual originality, emphasized in it something common, common to all, likening one subject to another, in a type pleasing to the emperor. Typical standards were created, as it were. “This influence is especially evident in the heroized statues of Augustus. The most famous is his marble statue from Prima Porta. The emperor is depicted as calm, majestic, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; in the clothes of a Roman general, he seemed to appear before his legions. Its shell is adorned with allegorical reliefs, the cloak is thrown over the hand holding a spear or wand. August is depicted bareheaded and with bare legs, which is known to be a tradition of Greek art, conventionally representing gods and heroes naked or half-naked. The staging of the figure uses the motives of the Hellenistic male figures of the school of the famous Greek master Lysippos. The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but, nevertheless, is somewhat idealized, which again comes from Greek portrait sculpture. Such portraits of emperors, intended to decorate forums, basilicas, theaters and thermae, were supposed to embody the idea of ​​the greatness and power of the Roman Empire and the inviolability of the imperial power. The era of Augustus opens a new page in the history of Roman portraiture. " In portrait sculpture, sculptors now liked to operate with large, little-modeled planes of the cheeks, forehead, and chin. This preference for flatness and the rejection of volumetricity, which manifested itself especially clearly in decorative painting, was reflected at that time in sculptural portraits. In the time of Augustus, more than before, portraits of women and children, which were very rare before, were created. Most often these were images of the wife and daughter of the princeps, the heirs to the throne appeared in marble and bronze busts and statues of boys. The official nature of such works was recognized by everyone: many wealthy Romans installed such statues in their homes to emphasize their disposition to the ruling family.

3.2 Time Julius - Claudius and Flavius

The essence of art in general and sculpture, in particular, of the Roman Empire began to express itself in full measure in the works of this time. Monumental sculpture took on forms that were different from Hellenic ones. The desire for concreteness led to the fact that the masters even gave the deities the individual features of the emperor. Rome was decorated with many statues of the gods: Jupiter, Roma, Minerva, Victoria, Mars. The Romans, who appreciated the masterpieces of Hellenic plastic art, sometimes treated them with fetishism. “During the heyday of the Empire, trophy monuments were created in honor of victories. Two huge marble trophies of Domitian's decorate the balustrade of the Capitol Square in Rome. The huge statues of the Dioscuri in Rome, at the Quirinal are also majestic. The rearing horses, the mighty youths holding the reins, are shown in a decisive stormy movement. " The sculptors of those years sought, first of all, to amaze a person. However, chamber sculpture was also widespread in the first period of the heyday of the Empire's art - marble figurines decorating the interiors, quite often found during the excavations of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia. The sculptural portrait of that period developed in several artistic channels. During the years of Tiberius, sculptors adhered to the classicist style that prevailed under Augustus and remained along with new techniques. Under Caligula, Claudius and especially Flavius, the idealizing interpretation of the appearance began to be replaced by a more accurate rendering of facial features and character of a person. It was supported by the republican manner with its sharp expressiveness, which did not disappear at all, but was muffled in the years of Augustus. “In the monuments belonging to these different trends, one can notice the development of a spatial understanding of volumes and an increase in the eccentric interpretation of the composition. Comparison of three statues of seated emperors: Augustus from Qom (St. Petersburg, Hermitage), Tiberius from Privynnus (Rome. Vatican) and Nerva (Rome. Vatican), convinces that already in the statue of Tiberius, which retains the classicist interpretation of the face, the plastic understanding of forms has changed ... The restraint and formality of the pose of the Kumsky Augustus was replaced by a free, unconstrained position of the body, a soft interpretation of volumes, not opposed to space, but already merged with it. The further development of the plastic-spatial composition of the seated figure can be seen in the statue of Nerva with his torso leaning back, his right hand raised high, and a decisive turn of his head. Changes also took place in the plastic of erect statues. The statues of Claudius have a lot in common with Augustus of Prima Port, but eccentric tendencies make themselves felt here too. It is noteworthy that some sculptors tried to contrast these spectacular plastic compositions with portrait statues, designed in the spirit of a restrained republican manner: the staging of the figure in a huge portrait of Titus from the Vatican is emphatically simple, the legs rest on full feet, the hands are pressed to the body, only the right one is slightly exposed. " “If the graphic principle prevailed in the classicizing portrait art of the time of Augustus, now sculptors recreated the individual appearance and character of nature by voluminous modeling of forms. The skin became denser, more prominent, hiding the structure of the head, which is distinct in the republican portraits. The plasticity of the sculptural images turned out to be richer and more expressive. This manifested itself even in the provincial portraits of Roman rulers that emerged on the distant periphery ”. The style of the imperial portraits was also imitated by private ones. Generals, rich freedmen, usurers tried to do everything - by posture, movement, demeanor to resemble the rulers; sculptors imparted pride to the seating of the heads, and decisiveness to turns, without softening, however, the sharp, far from always attractive features of the individual appearance; after the harsh norms of August classicism, art began to value the uniqueness and complexity of physiognomic expressiveness. A noticeable departure from the Greek norms that prevailed in the years of Augustus, is explained not only by the general evolution, but also by the desire of the masters to free themselves from foreign principles and methods, to reveal their Roman characteristics. In the marble portraits, as before, the pupils, lips, possibly hair were tinted with paint. In those years, more often than before, female sculptural portraits were created. In the depictions of the wives and daughters of emperors, as well as noble Roman women, the masters initially followed the classicist principles that prevailed under Augustus. Then, complex hairstyles began to play an increasing role in women's portraits, and the importance of plastic decor manifested itself more strongly than in men's portraits. The portrait painters of Domitia Longina, using high hairstyles in the treatment of faces, however, often adhered to the classicist manner, idealizing features, smoothing the surface of the marble, softening as much as possible the harshness of the individual appearance. “A magnificent monument to the late Flavian times is a bust of a young Roman woman from the Capitoline Museum. In the depiction of her curly locks, the sculptor moved away from the flatness visible in the portraits of Domitia Longina. In portraits of elderly Roman women, the opposition to the classicist manner was stronger. The woman in the Vatican portrait is depicted by the Flavian sculptor with all impartiality. Modeling a puffy face with bags under the eyes, deep wrinkles on sunken cheeks, squinting, seemingly watery eyes, thinning hair - all reveal frightening signs of old age.

3.3 Time of Troyan and Adrian

During the second period of the heyday of Roman art - during the early Antonines - Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138) - the empire remained militarily strong and prospered economically. “Round sculpture in the years of Adrian classicism imitated Hellenic in many ways. It is possible that the huge statues of the Dioscuri, dating back to the Greek originals, flanking the entrance to the Roman Capitol, arose in the first half of the 2nd century. They lack the dynamism of the Dioscuri from the Quirinal; they are calm, restrained and confidently lead the reins of meek and obedient horses. Some monotony, lethargy of forms make one think that they are the creation of Adrian's classicism. The size of the statues (5.50m - 5.80m) is also characteristic of the art of this time, which was striving for monumentalization. " In the portraits of this period, two stages can be distinguished: Trajan's, characterized by a gravitation towards republican principles, and Adrian's, in the plastic of which there is more adherence to Greek models. Emperors appeared in the guise of generals chained in armor, in the pose of sacrificing priests, in the form of naked gods, heroes or warriors. “In the busts of Trajan, who can be recognized by the parallel strands of hair descending on his forehead and the volitional fold of his lips, calm planes of the cheeks and a certain sharpness of features always prevail, especially noticeable both in Moscow and in the Vatican monuments. The energy concentrated in a person is clearly expressed in the Petersburg busts: a hunchback-nosed Roman - Sallust, a young man with a determined look, and a lictor. " The surface of the faces in the marble portraits of Trajan's time conveys the calmness and inflexibility of people; they seem to be cast in metal rather than carved in stone. Subtly perceiving physiognomic shades, Roman portrait painters created far from unambiguous images. The bureaucratization of the entire system of the Roman Empire also left its mark on the faces. Tired, indifferent eyes and dry, tightly compressed lips of a man in a portrait from the National Museum of Naples characterize a man of a difficult era who subordinated his emotions to the cruel will of the emperor. Women's images are filled with the same feeling of restraint, volitional tension, only occasionally softened by light irony, thoughtfulness or concentration. The appeal to the Greek aesthetic system under Hadrian is an important phenomenon, but in essence this second wave of classicism after the August wave was even more external than the first. Even under Hadrian, classicism was only a mask, under which it did not die, but the actual Roman attitude to form developed. The originality of the development of Roman art, with its pulsating manifestations of either classicism, or the actual Roman essence, with its spatiality of forms and authenticity, called verism, is evidence of the very contradictory nature of artistic thinking in late antiquity.

3.4 Time of the last Antonines

The late period of the heyday of Roman art, which began in the last years of the reign of Hadrian and the reign of Antoninus Pius and lasted until the end of the 2nd century, was characterized by the fading of pathos and pomp in artistic forms. This period is marked by an effort in the cultural sphere of individualistic tendencies. “The sculptural portrait underwent great changes at that time. The monumental round plastic of the late Antonines, while preserving the Adrian traditions, still testified to the fusion of ideal heroic images with specific characters, most often the emperor or his entourage, to the glorification or deification of an individual. The faces of deities in huge statues were given the features of emperors, monumental equestrian statues were cast, a model of which is the statue of Marcus Aurelius, the splendor of the equestrian monument was enhanced by gilding. However, even in the monumental portraits of even the emperor himself, fatigue, philosophical reflection began to be felt. " The art of portraiture, which experienced a kind of crisis in the years of the early Hadrian in connection with the strong classicist trends of the time, entered under the late Antonines in a heyday, which it did not know even in the years of the Republic and the Flavians. In statuary portraiture, the heroic idealized images that determined the art of the time of Trajan and Adrian continued to be created. “Since the thirties of the III century. n. NS. in portraiture, new artistic forms are being developed. The depth of psychological characteristics is achieved not by detailing the plastic form, but, on the contrary, by the laconicism, the parsimony of the selection of the most important defining personality traits. Such, for example, is the portrait of Philip the Arabian (Petersburg, Hermitage). The rough surface of the stone conveys well the weathered skin of "soldier" emperors: generalized lenok, sharp, asymmetrically located folds on the forehead and cheeks, treatment of hair and short beard with only small sharp notches focus the viewer's attention on the eyes, on the expressive line of the mouth. " “Portrait painters began to interpret eyes in a new way: the pupils, which they portrayed plastically, cutting into the marble, now gave the look liveliness and naturalness. Slightly covered with wide upper eyelids, they looked melancholy and sad. The look seemed absent-minded and dreamy, obedient submission to the higher, not fully realized mysterious forces prevailed. " Hints of the deep spirituality of the marble mass echoed on the surface in the thoughtfulness of views, the mobility of strands of hair, the tremor of the light bends of the beard and mustache. The portrait painters, performing curly hair, cut deeply into the marble with a drill and sometimes drilled deep internal cavities. Lighted up by the sun's rays, such hairstyles seemed like a mass of living hair. The artistic image was likened to the real one, the sculptors were getting closer and closer to what they especially wanted to portray - to the elusive movements of human feelings and moods. The masters of that era used various, often expensive materials for their portraits: gold and silver, rock crystal, and also widely spread glass. Sculptors appreciated this material - delicate, transparent, creating beautiful highlights. Even marble under the hands of craftsmen sometimes lost the strength of a stone, and its surface seemed like human skin. A nuanced sense of reality in such portraits made the hair lush and mobile, the skin silky, the fabric of the clothes soft. They polished the marble of a woman's face more carefully than that of a man's; youthfulness was distinguished by texture from senile.

CRISIS OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (III - IV CENTURIES)

4.1 End of the Principate Era

In the development of the art of Late Rome, two stages can be distinguished more or less clearly. The first is the art of the end of the principate (3rd century) and the second is the art of the dominant era (from the beginning of the reign of Diocletian to the fall of the Roman Empire). "In artistic monuments, especially of the second period, one can see the extinction of ancient pagan ideas and the increasing expression of new, Christian ones." Sculptural portrait in the 3rd century. Has undergone particularly noticeable changes. In the statues and busts, the techniques of the late Antonines were still preserved, but the meaning of the images was already different. Alertness and suspicion replaced the philosophical thoughtfulness of the characters of the second half of the 2nd century. Tension made itself felt even in the female faces of that time. In portraits in the second quarter of the 3rd century. The volumes were denser, the masters abandoned the gimbal, made the hair with notches, and achieved especially expressive expressiveness of wide-open eyes. The desire of innovative sculptors by such means to increase the artistic impact of their works caused a reaction in the years of Gallien (mid-3rd century) and a return to the old methods. For two decades, portrait painters again depicted the Romans with curly hair and curly beards, trying at least in artistic forms to revive the old manners and thereby remind of the former greatness of plastic. However, after this short-term and artificial return to Antonin's forms already at the end of the third quarter of the 3rd century. Once again, the desire of sculptors to convey the emotional tension of the inner world of a person with the utmost laconic means was revealed. In the years of bloody feuds and the frequent change of emperors who fought for the throne, portrait painters embodied the shades of complex spiritual experiences in new, then-born forms. Gradually, they were more and more interested not in individual traits, but in those sometimes elusive moods that were already difficult to express in stone, marble, bronze.

4.2 The era of dominance

In the sculptures of the 4th century. pagan and Christian plots coexisted; artists turned to the depiction and praise of not only mythological, but also Christian heroes; continuing what began in the III century. praising the emperors and their family members, they prepared the atmosphere of unbridled panegyrics and worship, characteristic of the Byzantine court ceremonial. Facial modeling gradually ceased to occupy portrait painters. The spiritual forces of man, which were especially acutely felt in the age when Christianity conquered the hearts of the pagans, seemed cramped in the hard forms of marble and bronze. Awareness of this deep conflict of the era, the impossibility of expressing feelings in plastic materials gave artistic monuments of the 4th century. something tragic. Widely disclosed in portraits of the IV century. the eyes, looking now sadly and imperiously, now inquiringly and anxiously, warmed with human feelings the cold, numb masses of stone and bronze. Warm and translucent marble became less and less the material for portrait painters; more and more often they chose basalt or porphyry for depicting faces less similar to the qualities of the human body.

CONCLUSION

From all that has been considered, it is clear that sculpture developed within the framework of its time, i.e. she relied very heavily on her predecessors, as well as on the Greek. During the heyday of the Roman Empire, each emperor brought something new to art, something of his own, and along with the art, sculpture changed accordingly. The antique sculpture is replaced by the Christian one; to replace the more or less unified Greco - Roman sculpture, widespread within the Roman Empire, provincial sculptures with revived local traditions, already close to the "barbarian" ones coming to replace them. A new era in the history of world culture begins, in which Roman and Greco-Roman sculpture is only one of the components. In European art, ancient Roman works often served as a kind of standards, which were imitated by architects, sculptors, glass blowers and ceramists. The invaluable artistic heritage of ancient Rome continues to live on as a school of classical craftsmanship for contemporary art.

The art of Rome begins with a portrait, as the Etruscan Romans made wax or plaster casts of the deceased's face. All the details of the face turned into a means of characterizing the image, where there is no place for the ideal, each is what it is.

Taking Greek art as a model (after 146 BC in the era of Augustus), the Romans began to depict emperors in countless idealized statues of patricians, Atlanteans and gods, although the model, of course, is heroized, and the head is a portrait of the emperor.

Statue of Augustus from Primaporte.

August as Zeus.

But more often a portrait sculpture of the Romans is a bust.

The beginning of the 1st century. BC. - characterized by deliberate simplicity and restraint.

Portrait of Nero

By the middle of the 1st century. AD - the desire for decorativeness, strong lighting effects is increasing. (This is the era of the Flavians)

The portraits resemble Hellenistic images, interest in the human personality appears, the subtle characterization of feelings is conveyed without changes in idealization, but very vividly. The artist uses sophisticated marble processing techniques, especially in feminine, artsy hairstyles.

Female portrait.

Portrait of Vittelius.

In the II century. AD (the era of Adrian, Antoninov) - portraits are distinguished by the softness of modeling, sophistication, an immersed gaze, a haze of sadness and detachment.

Portrait of Sirpanka.

The directionality, animality of the look is now emphasized by the cut out pupil (previously it was drawn, painted).

Around 170, an equestrian statue of the emperor Marcus Aurelius was cast (now stands on the Capitol Square in Rome). The supposed heroic character of the image does not coincide with the image of the philosopher emperor.

IIIc. marked by the features of the approaching end of ancient civilization. The fusion of local and ancient traditions that has developed in Roman art is destroyed by internecine wars, the decomposition of the slave-owning economic system.

The sculptural portrait is full of cruel and rude images, inspired by life itself. The images are truthful and merciless - revealing, carry fear and uncertainty, painful contradictions. IIIc. AD called the era of soldier emperors or the era of verism.

Portrait of Karakkana.

Portrait of Philip the Arabian.

The Romans were the creators of the so-called historical relief.

The Wall of the Altar of Peace (13-9 BC) - in the solemn procession of offerings to the Goddess of Peace, the Emperor Augustus with his family and associates march.

Trajan's Column (113 AD) - a thirty-meter column rises at the Trajan Forum (Rome), erected in honor of the victory over the Dacians. The relief, like a ribbon about one meter wide and 200 meters long, wraps around the entire shaft of the column in a spiral. The historical sequence depicts the main events of Trajan's campaign: the construction of a bridge over the Danube, the crossing, the battle itself, the siege of the Dacian fortress, the procession of prisoners, the triumphant return. Trajan at the head of the army, everything is depicted deeply realistically and permeated with the pathos of glorifying the victor.

Ancient Rome painting

By the middle of the 1st century. BC. Ancient Rome becomes a wealthy state. Palaces and villas are being built and decorated with frescoes. The floors and courtyards were decorated with mosaics - typesetting of natural stones, as well as colored glass paste (smalt). Especially many frescoes and mosaics have survived in the villas of Pompeii (which were destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 74 AD)

In the house of the Faun in Pompeii (the name originated from a bronze figure of a faun found in the house) a 15 sq.m. mosaic has been uncovered, depicting the battle of A. Macedon with the Persian king Darius. The excitement of the battle is perfectly conveyed, the portrait characteristics of the commanders are emphasized by the beauty of color.

In the ІІв. BC. the fresco imitated colored marble, the so-called inlaid style.

In the 4th century BC. the architectural (perspective) style is developing. As an example - the paintings of the Villa of the Mysteries: on the red background of the wall, almost to its entire height, there are large multi-figured compositions, including the figures of Dionysus and his companions - dancers, amaze with picturesque statuary, plastic movements.

During the period of the empire Ів. AD a third style is created, which is called ornamental or candelabrum, characterized by Egyptian motifs reminiscent of candelabra (house of Lucretius Frontin).

In the second half of IV. AD the murals are filled with the image of the architecture of gardens and parks, illusoryly expanding the space of the rooms, in the center of the wall, like a separate picture in a frame, mythological subjects are written (the house of the Vettii).

From the paintings of Roman villas, we can get an idea of ​​ancient painting, the influence of which will be felt for many centuries to come.