Thinking- Higher cognitive and regulatory process. It is a form of creative reflection of reality by a person, generating a result that is in reality itself or the subject on this moment time does not exist. Human thinking (in its lower forms it is found in animals) can also be understood as a creative transformation of ideas and images existing in memory.

From the physiological side the thinking process is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. The entire cortex takes part in the implementation of thinking processes. For the thinking process, those that matter most are complex temporary connections that form between the brain ends of the analyzers. The previously existing idea about the exact boundaries of the central sections of the analyzers in the cerebral cortex is refuted by the latest achievements of physiological science: “The limits of the analyzers are much greater, and they are not so sharply demarcated from each other, but overlap each other, interlock with each other” (I.P. Pavlov).This “special design” of the cortex facilitates the establishment of connections in the activities of a wide variety of analyzers. “The cerebral cortex must be considered as a grandiose mosaic of countless nerve points with a specific physiological role for each of them. At the same time, the cortex is a highly complex dynamic system, constantly striving for unification, to establish a single, common connection” (I.P. Pavlov). Since the activity of individual areas of the cortex is always determined by external stimuli, the nerve connections formed during the simultaneous stimulation of these areas of the cortex reflect the actual connections in things. These connections, naturally caused by external stimuli, constitute the physiological basis of the thinking process. “Thinking,” said I.P. Pavlov, “...represents nothing else but associations, first elementary, standing in connection with external objects, and then chains of associations. This means that every small, first association is the moment of the birth of a thought.” At first, these associations are of a generalized nature, reflecting real connections in their most general and undifferentiated form, and sometimes even incorrectly, based on random, insignificant characteristics. Only in the process of repeated stimulation does differentiation of temporary connections occur, they are clarified, consolidated and become the physiological basis of more or less accurate and correct knowledge about outside world. These associations arise primarily under the influence of primary signal stimuli, causing corresponding sensations, perceptions and ideas about the surrounding external environment. Real interactions and interconnections of these stimuli determine the emergence of corresponding temporary neural connections of the first signaling system. Participate in the implementation of the thinking process neural processes in the speech centers of the cortex . Thinking is based not only on primary signal connections. It necessarily presupposes the activity of the second signaling system in its inextricable connection with the first signaling system. The irritants here are no longer specific objects of the surrounding world and their properties, but words. Speech, being directly related to thinking, makes it possible to reflect in words the interrelation and interdependence of phenomena, because words are not just substitutes, signals of objects, but generalized stimuli. The second signaling system is specifically human. It arises in a person in connection with his labor activity and the need to communicate with other people caused by it, but nevertheless arises on the basis of the first signaling system and is in organic connection with it. In this interaction the main role belongs to the second signaling system. Due to the generalized nature of secondary signal stimuli - words that make it possible to reflect objective connections in their general form, the second signal system acquires leading value in complex nervous processes, subordinating the activity of the first signaling system. The interaction of the first and second signaling systems in the processes of thinking consists in the fact that the second signaling system in this unity occupies a dominant position and directs the processes of the first signaling system. The word transforms the first-signal nerve connections into generalized images of reality, which allows a person, in the processes of thinking, to break away from the specific features of perceived phenomena and think of existing connections in their generalized form, in the form of concepts, and not in the form of perceptions and ideas.

Types and forms of thinking. Our knowledge of the surrounding reality begins with sensations and perception and moves on to thinking. The function of thinking is to expand the boundaries of knowledge by going beyond the limits of sensory perception. The task of thinking is to reveal relationships between objects, identify connections and separate them from random coincidences. Thinking operates with concepts and assumes the functions of generalization and planning. Thinking is the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. These different levels of thinking are visual thinking in its elementary forms and abstract, theoretical thinking. With visual-figurative thinking, the transformation of the visual conditions of mental actions consists primarily in the translation of their perceptual content into the “language” of semantic features, into the language of meaning. Imaginative thinking is a form of a person’s creative reflection of reality, generating a result that does not exist in reality itself or in the subject at a given moment in time. Theoretical conceptual thinking is such thinking, using which a person, in the process of solving a problem, does not directly turn to the experimental study of reality, does not obtain the empirical facts necessary for thinking, and does not take practical actions aimed at actually transforming reality. Mental operations. Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis - This is the selection of certain aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc. in an object. Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Generalization- this is a mental operation consisting of combining many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic. Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them. Abstraction- an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from unimportant aspects, properties of objects and relationships between them in order to identify essential features. Isolation (abstraction) of common properties different levels allows a person to establish genus-specific relationships in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby build a certain classification Categorization– the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. – systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish connections between these concepts or classes of objects. Specification- this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific. One of the tasks of theoretical thinking is to determine a way to derive particular manifestations of a system object from its general (essential) basis, from a certain initial relationship in the system.

Correlation of thinking and speech. Many modern scientists adhere to a compromise point of view, believing that although thinking and speech are inextricably linked, they represent relatively independent realities both in genesis and functioning. Main question, which is now being discussed in connection with this problem, is the question of the nature of the real connection between thinking and speech, about their genetic roots and the transformations that they undergo in the process of their separate and joint development. L.S. Vygotsky made a significant contribution to solving this problem. The word, he wrote, relates to speech as well as to thinking. It is a living cell containing in simple form basic properties inherent in speech thinking in general. A word is not a label stuck as an individual name on separate item. It always characterizes the object or phenomenon it denotes in a generalized way and, therefore, acts as an act of thinking. But the word is also a means of communication, therefore it is part of speech. Being devoid of meaning, the word no longer refers to either thought or speech; Having acquired its meaning, it immediately becomes an organic part of both. It is in the meaning of the word, says L.S. Vygotsky, that the knot of that unity, which is called speech thinking, is tied. However, thinking and speech have different genetic roots. Initially they performed different functions and developed separately. The original function of speech was communicative function. Speech itself as a means of communication arose due to the need to separate and coordinate the actions of people in the process of joint work. At the same time, in verbal communication, the content conveyed by speech belongs to a certain class of phenomena and, therefore, already presupposes their generalized reflection, i.e. fact of thinking. At the same time, such, for example, a method of communication as a pointing gesture does not carry any generalization in itself and therefore does not relate to thought. In turn, there are types of thinking that are not associated with speech, for example, visual-effective, or practical, thinking in animals. In small children and in higher animals, unique means of communication are found that are not associated with thinking. These are expressive movements, gestures, facial expressions that reflect internal states a living being, but not a sign or a generalization. In the phylogenesis of thinking and speech, a pre-speech phase in the development of intelligence and a pre-intellectual phase in the development of speech clearly emerges. L.S. Vygotsky believed that at the age of approximately 2 years, i.e. in the one that J. Piaget designated as the beginning of the stage of pre-operational thinking following sensorimotor intelligence, a critical turning point occurs in the relationship between thinking and speech: speech begins to become intellectualized, and thinking - speech. Signs of the onset of this turning point in the development of both functions are rapid and the child’s active expansion of his vocabulary (he often begins to ask adults the question: what is this called?) and an equally rapid, spasmodic increase in his communicative vocabulary. The child, as it were, discovers for the first time the symbolic function of speech and discovers an understanding that behind the word as a means of communication there actually lies a generalization, and uses it both for communication and for solving problems. He begins to call different objects with the same word, and this is direct evidence that the child is mastering concepts. When solving any intellectual problems, he begins to reason out loud, and this, in turn, is a sign that he is using speech as a means of thinking, and not just communication. The meaning of the word as such becomes practically accessible to the child.

The physiological basis of thinking is temporary nerve connections ( conditioned reflexes), which are formed in the cerebral cortex.
These conditioned reflexes arise under the influence of second signals (words, thoughts), reflecting reality, but they necessarily arise on the basis of the first signal system (sensations, perceptions, ideas).
I.P. Pavlov wrote that “kinesthetic stimuli coming to the cortex from the speech organs are second signals, signals of signals. They represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human, higher thinking...”
Unlike sensations, perceptions and memory, second-signal connections are more complex systems that reflect various relationships between objects and phenomena.
In thinking processes, both signaling systems are closely related to each other. The second signaling system allows for unlimited orientation in the surrounding world; through it, “the highest human adaptation - science” (Pavlov) is created.
But the second signaling system relies on the first. If words are devoid of a certain real meaning for a person, if a person cannot correlate them with some specific items and phenomena, then such words cease to be signals of reality.
Thinking proceeds normally only with the participation of both signaling systems, but the leading role remains with the second signaling system, since the word is a signal richer in content and is associated with the processes of abstraction and generalization.

Social nature of thinking

Thinking, as already mentioned, is closely related to speech, which is the instrument of our mental activity. When a person thinks, he seems to pronounce his thought.
Sometimes this is done in the form of expanded phrases pronounced to oneself, but more often the thought is formalized in words and sentences in an abbreviated, collapsed form, so that we do not always notice this internal pronunciation.
Human mental activity has social character. In the process of historical development, in the process of making tools and during their use, people felt the need to share their thoughts with each other, and in this communication the ability to think and speak was developed.
The development of the second signaling system, and therefore thinking, occurred and is occurring in the conditions of human social life. Thanks to speech, the continuity of the products of thinking and their communication to subsequent generations became possible.
Without the transfer of this experience (especially in the form of printed works), human thought could not have created science, technology and culture.
Consolidation of the results of thinking in oral and writing makes it possible to successfully teach children by transferring previously acquired knowledge to them in a ready-made form and encouraging them to engage in independent mental activity.

Mental operations

In the process of mental activity, people have developed certain techniques, or operations, of thinking. Let's look at some of them.
Analysis and synthesis. When we study a subject, we often (especially if the subject is complex) divide it into parts and then consider each of them separately. How are younger schoolchildren introduced to the plant? They propose to highlight its parts: trunk, branches, leaves, roots. And then the purpose of each of these parts is determined.
But in the process of mental work, a person also has to do the opposite mental operation: to connect individual parts or elements of an object together. Thus, it is impossible to get an idea of ​​a plant unless you mentally combine its individual parts (trunk, leaves, branches, roots) into one whole. The technique of combining individual elements or parts into a whole is called synthesis.
Analysis and synthesis are the most important thinking techniques. Many thinking processes involve them. Human mental activity is, as Academician Pavlov said, an analytical-synthetic activity.
Mental analysis and synthesis arose in humans as a result of practical actions with objects. “The breaking of a nut,” Engels wrote, “is the beginning of analysis.” Analysis and synthesis are used in the simplest mental operations, and in very complex thought processes associated with creativity.
Comparison. Mental isolation (analysis) of individual qualities of objects, as well as the combination (synthesis) of individual elements into a whole, make it possible to compare objects and phenomena with each other. Comparison is of great importance in thinking processes. K. D. Ushinsky believed that comparison is the basis of all understanding and all thinking, that we learn everything in the world only through comparison.
Objects and phenomena can be compared based on one characteristic or a whole series of characteristics and properties; Thus, the climate of two countries can be compared with each other by the average annual temperature, but also by the amount of precipitation, the stability of the weather, the prevailing winds, the effect on the health of residents, etc.
Abstraction and concretization. In the process of thinking, it is often necessary to distract from a number of attributes of an object or from the objects themselves, highlighting one attribute or property. So we can talk about green as a color that has a beneficial effect on human vision, without specifically indicating objects that are colored in green color. Or, let’s say, we say: “strength is an important quality,” but we do not specifically explain what kind of strength we are talking about we're talking about: a person, an animal, a machine, about the force of gravity, etc. In both cases, we abstracted from a whole series of objects that have these properties, and we are talking about the property in general. Mental abstraction from a number of properties of objects and the selection of one that is necessary for us is called abstraction. But if we point to a specific object or emphasize a specific feature of this object, then a process of so-called concretization occurs here. We talk, for example, about the green color of the wallpaper in a room or express the idea that our friend has great physical strength. In both cases, we are dealing with concrete concepts, although they are expressed in the same words as the above abstract concepts (“color”, “strength”).
Generalization. Concepts are formed in humans as a result of the process of generalization, i.e., the mental association of objects and phenomena that have general properties. Generalizations will be correct when objects and phenomena are combined according to an essential characteristic. Thus, to think about the concept of “metal” means to highlight the common characteristics that iron, steel, cast iron, copper, etc. have, and combine them in one general word - “metal”. But a generalization is not always based on an essential feature. Sometimes unification occurs based on random characteristics. Children often make such mistakes.
The writer resorts to generalization, taking some traits from individual people and combining them into one person, thus creating a typical image literary hero. A. M. Gorky said that it is necessary to take a very good look at hundreds of people of any class in order to approximately correctly paint a portrait of one of its representatives.

Basic forms of thinking

When thinking about something, we always operate in concepts. A concept is a thought about an object or phenomenon, reflecting its general and, moreover, essential properties. If I see a thing that consists of a board resting on four legs, and I understand what the purpose of this object is, then the concept of “table” arises in me. Some specific features may not be taken into account in the concept, such as the color of the table, its size, the presence or absence of drawers.
A concept differs from a representation, which is an image of an object. When I imagine the house in which I live, I mentally see this house, with all its features (new, made of gray bricks, five floors). When I think: “A house is a person’s dwelling,” I do not mean any specific house, but use a concept that generalizes any house. Therefore, the concept is broader than representation. We can express things in concepts that cannot be visualized. So, we cannot mentally see geometric figure, having a thousand angles, but the concept of a “thousandagon” exists, and we know that in practice such a figure can exist.
Concepts are expressed in words. However, we cannot assume that the concept and the word are identical. Firstly, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, the words “airplane” and “airplane” denote the same object. Secondly, the same word sometimes expresses different concepts. Thus, the word “braid” refers to a woman’s braided hair and a tool for cutting grass, and in geography, a peninsula in the form of a narrow strip of land, a shallow. Finally, on different languages the same concept is denoted by different words (in Russian - table, in English - the table, in German - der Tisch, etc.).
We express thoughts about objects and phenomena, about connections and relationships between them in the form of judgments, for example: “It’s raining outside”; “The student did not solve the problem.”
Judgment is a form of thinking that contains the affirmation or denial of something. Judgments often reveal the content of concepts: “Psychology is the science of the laws of human mental life.” This judgment reveals the content of the concept of “psychology”.
A conclusion is often drawn based on one or more judgments. For example, we made two judgments: “In class V, all are pioneers”; “Ivanov is a fifth grade student at this school.” Based on the first and second judgments, we express the third judgment: “Consequently, Ivanov is a pioneer.”
The form of thinking in which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments is called inference. An example of inference is proof of theorems in geometry.
Inferences can be inductive or deductive. Inductive reasoning, or, as it is usually called, induction, is a method of reasoning in which, based on a number of individual facts (expressed in particular judgments), a conclusion is drawn and a general judgment is expressed. For example, having established that one, another, third, etc. objects immersed in water become so much lighter in it, the conclusion is drawn that any body immersed in water loses as much weight as the weight of the water it displaces (Archimedes' law).
Deductive reasoning, or, as they say, deduction, is a method of reasoning in which one goes from general provisions to particular conclusions. So, knowing that all bodies expand when heated, we can conclude that iron rails also lengthen somewhat in hot weather. Both types of reasoning (inductive and deductive) help a person expand his knowledge about the world around him.
The process of thinking in which conclusions are strictly based on correct judgments is called logical thinking, and the science of the forms and laws of correct thinking is called logic. A feature of logical thinking is the consistency of conclusions and their strict argumentation. With logical thinking, the phenomena under consideration receive a convincing explanation, and causes and consequences are unmistakably established. Through logical thinking, connections and relationships between concepts are revealed. These connections and relationships are expressed in judgments, the truth of which cannot be refuted.
A striking example of strictly logical thinking can be the proofs of theorems in geometry and other mathematical conclusions, where everything that follows is based on previous provisions, one inevitably follows from the other.

Understanding

One of the goals of human mental activity is to understand the essence of any object, phenomenon or thought expressed by others.
In some cases, understanding comes down to understanding what the object in front of us is. Thus, a biologist will understand what type of plant he found in Iola by including this plant in the appropriate class (or species).
In other cases, understanding consists in finding the cause of a fact, establishing a connection between phenomena, etc. For example, a mechanic manages to understand why a machine stopped working.
Great importance in mental work has an understanding of speech (both oral and written). Understanding comes down, first of all, to ensuring that, behind the words and phrases of someone else’s message, the listener or reader has corresponding ideas of objects or phenomena, establishing connections between the new and the already familiar and understandable.
So, understanding the phrase in foreign language occurs when a person knows what each word in it means, and, in addition, the connection between the words in a given sentence is clear.
Knowledge and previous experience are of great importance for understanding, since, having it, it turns out to be possible to correlate the new with the old, the incomprehensible with the understandable, the unfamiliar with what is already known to a person.

ANNOTATION

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, studying the physiological process, which he called the conditioned reflex, made the assumption that this process is the basis for the formation of mental reactions of all living organisms, including the human thinking process modern look. But as it now turns out, the thinking process of modern humans is based not on one, but on four types of conditioned reflexes. The first type of conditioned reflexes are reflexes on the correlation of images of perception of objects of reality. This type of reflex determines the organization of life activity of the bulk of living organisms on Earth. The second type of conditioned reflexes are reflexes to the relationship between representational images and objects of reality previously perceived by the individual. Corresponds to the level of brain development of higher primates. The third type of conditioned reflexes is reflexes to the relationship of generalized images, reflexes that form a not yet reflected modern psychology thinking and corresponding to the level of development of the Neanderthal brain, a generalized figurative type of thinking. The fourth type is reflexes to the relationship of all of the above images, conditionally reflexively associated with symbol the corresponding image - in a word. That is, it is a conditioned reflex to the relationship of concepts corresponding to the level of development of the modern human brain, or, what is the same, a conceptual type of thinking.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THINKING

There is nothing in the world except matter.

The mode of existence of matter is movement. The source of movement is the “struggle” of opposites, forming in their unity dialectical systems. There is nothing in the world except dialectical systems of the unity of opposites. The essence of any natural process is the development of dialectical systems that form this process. Process individual development of a living organism is the activity of this organism aimed at satisfying its needs. In the process of the body’s activity, new needs are born, which again encourage the body to engage in activities aimed at satisfying them. The dialectical system "need - activity", the struggle of opposites of which maintains the homeostasis of the body, is one of the main systems whose development determines the ontogenesis of a living organism.

The reflex activity of the nervous system, ensuring that the body acquires information about reality in the process of its activity (both about the needs of the body and about ways to satisfy them), - on the basis of this information, organizes all further activity of the body, thus being a dialectical form of development of the system “need - activity”, with which this form (simply it can be called a form of activity of the organism) forms another dialectical system - “need - activity - form of activity”.

At the unconditional reflex level of development of the nervous system, the acquisition of information about reality is carried out in the process of historical development of the species of organisms, through indefinite variability and natural selection. That is, at the unconditioned reflex level of development of the nervous system, information is ultimately acquired by the gene pool of a species of organisms, and therefore here the form of activity of an individual organism is essentially the form of activity of a species of organisms. With the birth of the ability of the nervous system to acquire, through conditioned reflexes, useful information In the process of individual development of the organism, the individual form of activity of the organism begins to develop in the form of conditioned reflex activity of its nervous system, which in the phylogenesis of the nervous system undergoes several qualitative levels of its development.

Apart from the unconditioned reflex - species - qualitative level of development of the form of activity of the organism, the first qualitative level of the individual form of activity of the organism is the organization of activity, which is carried out through conditioned reflexes to the relationships of objects of reality, i.e. on qualitative, quantitative, temporal and spatial relationships of conditioned stimuli. The basis for the flow of these reflexes are temporary connections formed in the process of the nervous system reflecting the interaction of the body with the objects of reality. Any object or process of reality perceived by an individual, i.e. Every object of perception is a set of certain ratios of elementary conditioned stimuli, the perception of which is carried out through analyzers specialized for these stimuli. Temporary connections formed between the foci of excitation, generated in the brain by the signals of these analyzers, fix the ratios of these foci of excitation, and these ratios of the foci of excitation, reflecting the ratios of elementary conditioned stimuli of the perceived object (situation), form an image of this object in the brain - the image of perception.

At the first qualitative level of development of the form of activity of the organism, the acquisition of information about reality occurs partly through the imitative reflex, which is very active in the initial period of ontogenesis, and partly by trial and error in the process of interaction with objects of reality in order to satisfy one’s needs. In the process of this interaction, temporary connections are formed between foci of excitation that arise in the brain during the perception of objects of reality corresponding to these foci, as a result of which both the relationships of the organism with the objects and the relationships of the objects of reality themselves are recorded in the brain.

In the phylogenesis of the nervous system, the number of specialized analyzers is growing. The number of associative neurons is growing, providing a temporary nervous connection between foci of excitation, the ratios of which reflect the characteristics of objects, the relationships of attributes, objects as a whole and their relationships. The mechanisms of figurative memory are improved. The ability to operate with trace conditioned stimuli - images of previously perceived objects (images of representation) is born and improved. All this, ultimately, determines the transition of the form of activity of the organism to a new - second - qualitative level of development. “Research from our laboratory has shown that chimpanzees aged 2-15 years have such well-developed conditioned reflex and figurative memory that this indicator, even in comparison with lower apes, can speak of a qualitatively new stage in the evolution of the mammalian brain.”(2)

A qualitatively new level of organization of anthropoids’ activities was noticed by I.P. Pavlov, which was the reason for the amendment he made to the reflex theory: “this cannot be called a “conditioned reflex”. This is a case of the formation of knowledge, the capture of the normal connection of things.”(3 )

A new quality in the organization of anthropoids’ activities is the ability to form temporary connections not only in the process of directly reflecting objects of reality, but also in the process of reflecting images of representation. This is the organization of activity not only through conditioned reflexes to the relationships between objects of reality (images of perception), but through conditioned reflexes to the relationships between images of representation. That is, an anthropoid, looking at the bait lying near the cage, is able to correlate and compare the image of the length that his limb is missing to reach the bait with the images of previously seen sticks lying in the cage. As a result of sorting through the options for correlations of representational images, using the same trial and error method, the inhibition of temporary connections occurs, reflecting those relationships of images that do not lead to achieving the goal, and the excitation of temporary connections, reflecting the relationships of images leading to achieving the goal. As a result, the anthropoid is able to select a stick of the required length on the first try. The birth of the brain’s ability to organize activity through conditioned reflexes to the relationships between representational images is nothing more than the birth of visual-figurative thinking, which is a defining feature of the second qualitative level of development of the individual form of activity of the organism. Thinking is not the excitation of ready-made temporary connections, it is not the reproduction of memorized formulas and actions. Thinking is the process of operating with mental images, where new temporary connections are formed, the excitation of which determines the course of conditioned reflexes, which in their totality organize the activity of the body aimed at satisfying its needs. In the phylogenesis of the nervous system, the development of the thinking process undergoes several qualitative transitions, giving rise to several types of thinking, which determine the qualitative levels of development of the individual form of activity of the organism.

Each type of thinking gives birth to its own method. For the formation of new temporary connections, visually effective thinking has no other method than the trial and error method, where an error that does not lead to the satisfaction of a need forms temporary connections that reflect the relationships of objects corresponding to this error, and the satisfaction of needs forms temporary connections that reflect the relationships of objects , as relationships leading to the satisfaction of a given need. This method of thinking is capable of forming temporary connections that form conditioned reflex chains, the excitation of which organizes the body’s activity aimed at satisfying those needs in the process of satisfying which these temporary connections were formed. Moreover, the excitation of these chains occurs sequentially from one link to another, therefore the process of excitation of these temporary connections is called associations by contiguity. The visual-figurative type of thinking also uses the trial and error method, but this no longer occurs in the process of operating with specific objects (images of perception), but in the process of operating with images of representing specific objects, where the possibility of quickly enumerating options for a wide variety of relationships between images is born. different time and in various places of perceived objects.

Using the trial and error method generated by the visually effective type of thinking, the visually figurative type of thinking at a certain level of its development gives rise to new method- a method of thinking through associations by similarity. The essence of this method is that previously formed temporary connections, reflecting and organizing any relationship of the organism with objects, are capable of being excited when perceiving a similar situation, being excited when perceiving objects (situations) that coincide in certain characteristics with previously perceived objects. As a result, a comparison of similar objects and situations occurs. Similarity associations are based on the ability of the brain to excite a certain set of temporary connections, reflecting a set of certain ratios of elementary conditioned stimuli (reflecting a specific object), when not perceiving this entire set of conditioned stimuli, but only part of it, which is a common part of all similar objects, part , forming characteristics common to all these objects, in relation to which these objects are combined as similar. For example, an anthropoid who once reached with a stick to objects lying in such a way that he could not reach them with an unarmed limb, is subsequently able to use the mental image of this activity, as, firstly, in a similar situation, for example, in order to get bait because of the cage, so, secondly, with similar objects that are also capable of lengthening the limb - wire, rope, etc.

Thus, in matters of acquiring information about reality, in matters of organizing their activities, anthropoids are at the second qualitative level of development of the individual form of activity of the organism. The organization of their activities is carried out not only through unconditioned reflexes(specific form of activity), and conditioned reflexes to the relationships between objects of reality or images of perception (the first qualitative level of the individual form of activity of the organism), but also through conditioned reflexes to the relationships between images of representations of objects of reality. The physiological basis for the occurrence of these reflexes are temporary connections between foci of excitation, each of which represents a set of temporary connections, the excitation of which forms a mental image of a previously perceived object - an image of representation.

Yes, this cannot be called an ordinary conditioned reflex, it is a conditioned reflex of a new qualitative level of phylogenesis of the nervous system, it is a reflex that creates the possibility of “forming knowledge, grasping the normal connection of things” (3). The development of a method of thinking through associations by similarity gives rise to the process psychological analysis and synthesis, where in the process of comparing a number of mental images with each other, reflecting similar relationships of an individual with similar objects in order to satisfy the needs of the individual through a certain property inherent in all these objects, a generalized image of this class of relationships is formed. And this generalized image reflects the common part of all these relationships, namely, the relationship of the individual with the property inherent in all these objects. That is, here there is a mental separation of a given property inherent in a number of objects from these specific objects and the unification of these objects, relative to the property identified in the process of analysis, into a certain class of objects. In the initial period of development of this process, the property, separated from a number of specific objects, still remains not separated from the individual interacting with it. That is, here the generalized image is not an image of a class of objects with which an individual interacts, but an image of a class of relationships between an individual and similar objects.

The physiological essence of this psychological process is the process of formation of temporary connections, reflecting a certain ratio of certain elementary conditioned stimuli, which form a common part of all relationships of the individual with similar objects.

The process of psychological analysis and synthesis, which has only just begun to emerge at the level of brain development of anthropoids, sharply distinguishes them from all lower animals in the phylogenetic series, first of all, by their highly developed objective activity. Anthropoids are already capable, in order to satisfy their needs, of using, for example, such properties of various objects as the ability to lengthen a limb, thereby uniting into one class with respect to this property such objects as a stick, rope, wire. The birth of this process also distinguishes anthropoids by the emergence of their tool activity, i.e. the emergence of the ability to give an object the property necessary to satisfy a certain need. For example, breaking out a stick from a bush, breaking off its side branches, sharpening a stick for stabbing bait, etc. All this is evidence that the brain of anthropoids is already capable of forming a mental image, in accordance with which the anthropoid processes the object; and this image is nothing more than a generalized image of the relationship between the anthropoid and a property inherent in a certain number of objects, a property using which the anthropoid satisfies his needs. However, at the level of brain development of anthropoids, the ability to form generalized images is only just beginning. This ability reaches its full development at the level of brain development of one of the species of fossil humans. In the phylogenesis of the nervous system of fossil humans, the ability of the brain to form concepts ultimately arises, an ability that reaches its full development at the level of brain development of modern humans.

A concept is a thought that reflects a set of properties inherent in a number of objects, a set in relation to which a given series of objects forms a certain class of objects (abstract concept); or a thought reflecting a set of properties of a specific object, properties in relation to which this object is included in a certain class of objects (a specific concept). The concept is also formed through associations of similarity in the process of an individual comparing images of representing his own relationships with objects of a certain series in order to satisfy his needs with images of representing relationships of his own kind with objects of the same series for the same purposes. In this comparison, temporary connections are formed that reflect the common part of all these relationships and form the final abstract reflection by the brain of the property that is inherent in the objects of a given series and through which all individuals interacting with the objects of a given series, including themselves, satisfy their needs. That is, here this property is separated not only from a number of specific objects that possess it, but also from a number of specific consumers of this property, including oneself.

A concept is a set of temporary connections that form an abstract image of a property inherent in a certain number of objects (abstract concept), or a set of temporary connections that form abstract images of the properties of a specific object (concrete concept).

An integral component of a concept is its conventional sign - the word - with the nervous mechanisms of reproduction and perception of which the corresponding image is connected by temporary connections. The qualitative transition of the phylogenesis of the nervous system, which determines the transition from the brain’s ability to form images of representation to the ability to form generalized images (separation of a certain property from objects) and the qualitative transition from the ability to form generalized images to the ability to form concepts (separation of a certain property from its consumers) are equivalent qualitative transitions . Therefore, both transitions give rise to new qualitative levels of development of the thinking process, i.e. each transition determines the birth of a new type of thinking. Therefore, in addition to visual-effective, visual-figurative and conceptual types of thinking, there is, as an independent type, a generalized-figurative type of thinking, which reaches its full development at the level of the morphophysiological organization of the Neanderthal brain.

The fact that the life activity of Neanderthals differs sharply from both the life activity of all animals, including anthropoids, and from the life activity of modern humans, is confirmation that the organization of their life activity was determined by the type of thinking, which in the phylogenesis of the brain is higher than the visual-figurative type, but lower conceptual. Indirect confirmation of the existence of four types of thinking is J. Piaget’s concept of four levels (stages) of development of the thinking process in the ontogenesis of a modern child (4).

The generalized figurative type of thinking corresponds to the third qualitative level of development of the individual form of activity of the organism and is carried out through conditioned reflexes to the relationships of generalized images. The basis for the flow of these reflexes are temporary connections between foci of excitation, each of which is a set of temporary connections, reflecting the general part of the body’s relationships with objects of a certain series. A generalized figurative type of thinking, using methods: trial and error, associations by similarity, at a certain level of its development gives birth to a new method - the method of thinking through associations by contrast. The essence of this method is the stimulation of temporary connections that form an abstract image of a class of objects when the brain perceives objects of the opposite class, resulting in a comparison of opposites.

Essentially, the evolution of fossil people was the evolution of their brain in the direction of the birth of the ability to reflect and compare opposites, which determined the transition of the individual’s form of activity to the fourth qualitative level of development, determined by the birth of the brain’s ability to form concepts. Happy birthday public consciousness- (which is the information base for the development of individual consciousness of all subsequent generations of individuals) - in the process of its development, the needs of individuals develop from biological needs to the needs of creativity, cognition, which are also the basis for the formation of concepts. But the first concepts of the human consciousness that was born along with them could only be the concepts of those objects through which individuals satisfied their most necessary biological needs.

To form the first concepts in the human brain, it is necessary for the individual to compare himself (images of representing his own relationships with objects of a certain class) with his own kind (with images of representing the relationships of his own kind with objects of the same class). But in order for this comparison to become possible, each individual needs to separate himself from his own kind, i.e. to form abstract images of those parts of reality that in modern humans are defined by the concept “mine”. That is, the first concepts of the emerging human consciousness could only be the concepts of “mine” and “not mine”, with their unity and “struggle” - (which has the nature of comparison of everything that is reflected by these concepts) - giving birth to the concept of “I”. Everything is relative. And knowing yourself is no exception. With the beginning of the production of reusable tools by fossil people - (which were not thrown away after use, but were stored for further use) - the question arises in their relationships about the ownership of certain tools by certain individuals, because the manufacturer of the tool had a demand to recognize only his right to use the tool of his own making.

In conflicts arising over the ownership of tools, the same class of relationships between individuals with the same series of objects (tools) is divided into two opposite ones: those that satisfy needs (the class of relationships with tools of their own making) and those that do not satisfy needs due to the emergence of conflicts (class of relationships with other people's tools). In the process of comparing these classes of relationships, an abstract image of a number of tools is formed, which are also divided into two opposite classes: a class of tools capable of satisfying the needs of the individual (my tool) and not capable of satisfying his needs (not my tool). The dialectics of the objective world begins to be reflected in the emerging individual consciousness in the form of dialectical systems of concepts “mine - not mine”, “mine - not mine - I”. With the separation of oneself from one’s own kind, the highest qualitative level of development of the individual form of activity of the organism begins its development - human consciousness, which organizes human activity using all four types of thinking, but the main type used, of course, is the conceptual type of thinking.

The conceptual type of thinking, using all of the above methods of thinking, at a certain level of its development gives rise to a new method - the dialectical method of thinking, the essence of which is through associations by contrast, the unification of opposites into dialectical systems, the deviation from the state of equilibrium of which (violation of their homeostasis), giving rise to "struggle "opposites is the driving force behind the development of all processes in the world. Thus, the four qualitative levels of development of the individual form of activity of the organism are determined by four types of thinking, which are formed by four types of conditioned reflexes. The basis for the flow of these reflexes are temporary connections that form relationships: images of perception, images of representation, generalized images and concepts.

“So, a temporary nervous connection is a universal phenomenon in the animal world and in ourselves. And at the same time, it is also a mental phenomenon” (5) a phenomenon that, forming certain aggregates and having various forms of their excitation, organizes all types of thinking, all methods thinking and, ultimately, all mental processes in the animal world, including ourselves. Consciousness is the totality of objective physiological processes occurring in the human brain, providing a subjective reflection of reality and organizing human-conscious activities aimed at satisfying his needs.

Literature

1. K. Marx, F. Engels Works, 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 245.

2. Firsov L.A. I.P. Pavlov and experimental primatology. L.: Nauka, 1982, p43.

3. Pavlovsk environments. Protocols and transcripts of physiological conversations. M.-L.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1949, vol. 3, p. 262.

4. Piaget J. Selected psychological works. M. International Pedagogical Academy. 1994, p. 179.

5. Pavlov I.P. Selected works. M.: Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, 1951, p. 365.

6. Tverdokhlebov G.A. driving forces social progress. “Federation” No. 9, 2006, “Legal Research Foundation”; http://www.tverd4.narod.ru/st06.htm

7. Tverdokhlebov G.A. Dialectics of the evolution of the animal world. The essence of dialectical contradiction; http://www.tverd4.narod.ru/st04.htm

8. Tverdokhlebov G.A. The birth of legal relations and state power. “United Scientific Journal” No. 13, 2006, “Legal Research Foundation”; http://www.tverd4.narod.ru/st01.html

9. Tverdokhlebov G.A. Physiology of thinking. “United Scientific Journal” No. 21, 2006, “Legal Research Foundation”; http://www.tverd4.narod.ru/st02.htm

Thinking- it is socially conditioned, inextricably linked with speech mental process searches and discovery of essentially new things, the process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality in the course of its analysis and synthesis. Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity from sensory knowledge and goes far beyond its limits.

Physiological basis of thinking are temporary nerve connections (conditioned reflexes) that are formed in the cerebral cortex. These conditioned reflexes arise under the influence of second signals (words, thoughts), reflecting reality, but they necessarily arise on the basis of the first signal system (sensations, perceptions, ideas).

In psychology, a common classification of types of thinking is: 1) visual-effective, 2) visual-figurative and 3) abstract (theoretical) thinking.

Visual-effective thinking . In the course of historical development, people solved the problems facing them first in terms of practical activity, only then did theoretical activity emerge from it. For example, at first our distant ancestor learned to measure practically (in steps, etc.) land, and only then, on the basis of the knowledge accumulated in the course of this practical activity, geometry gradually emerged and developed as a special theoretical science.

Visual-figurative thinking. IN simplest form Visual-figurative thinking occurs primarily in preschool children, i.e., at the age of four to seven years. Although the connection between thinking and practical actions is preserved, it is not as close, direct and immediate as before. During the analysis and synthesis of a cognizable object, a child does not necessarily and does not always have to touch the object that interests him with his hands. In many cases, systematic practical manipulation (action) with an object is not required, but in all cases it is necessary to clearly perceive and visually represent this object.

Abstract thinking. Based on practical and visual-sensory experience in children in school age abstract thinking develops - first in its simplest forms, i.e. thinking in the form of abstract concepts.

Verbal-logical thinking - one of the types of thinking, characterized by the use of concepts and logical structures. Verbal-logical thinking functions on the basis of linguistic means and represents the latest stage in the historical and ontogenetic development of thinking. In the structure of verbal-logical thinking, the different kinds generalizations.

Thinking - the highest level of knowledge. Reflects the essential, the main thing, the natural.

The main features are repeating and natural (for items in this group).

Features of thinking:

1. Generalized reflection (of the main characteristics). Selection occurs in thinking.

2. Mediation (indirect reflection, not direct (thanks to experience, knowledge, logic, ...)).

3. A special tool is used to solve problems - language (speech).

4. Using social experience.

But, no matter how complex thinking is, it ultimately relies on sensory knowledge.

Thinking, as a special theoretical activity, is based on practical activity.

Source of thinking – Practical activities/practice (criterion and test of thinking).

Practical activity itself changes depending on the development of thinking.

Practice becomes intellectualized.

Physiological basis thinking.

Second signaling system – allows you to act in a mental way.

Verbal stimuli. The word generalizes.

The second alarm system is associated with first signaling system . The basis of thinking is the interaction of these systems. But the second one is the main one, the determining one.

Reflexes :

1. Orienting reflex - associated with the second signaling system (reaction to novelty, sound; curiosity, interest, desire for knowledge).

2. Extrapolation reflex - moment of anticipation - plans, expected actions, ... Transferring something learned to new conditions.

3. Reflexes on relationships.

Dominant mechanism.

(opened by Ukhtomsky).

Dominant = dominant focus of excitation.

It is enhanced by the work of other parts of the brain.

Provokes people to find something new, easily connects distant things.

Dominant foci are associated with mental activity (dominant thought).

Functional system according to Anokhin.

In general, the body is adjusted to obtain a useful result.

1. The moment of decision.

2. Acceptor of action results (ARD) – image of the result.

3. Assessment of the situation (based on feedback).

Brain blocks.

By and large, the whole brain and hemispheres work.

Distracted activity – III block (main role – anterior section).

Areas of the brain.

Frontal regions– functioning of the most complex shapes mental activity.

Parieto-occipital region– connections, relationships (ex: a book on the table, etc.).

Left temporal region– perception and understanding of speech.

Hemispheres.

Abstract information – left hemisphere.

Figurative information – right hemisphere(artistic activity).

Ticket 26.

Approaches to characterizing thinking.

Associative psychology.

Thinking- a game of images.

Creativity and communication were ignored.

Wurzburg school.

M. = logical experiences, grasping relationships.

BUT: thinking is ugly.

Gestalt psychology.

M. = formation of an integral structure.

Behaviorism.

M. = related to practical thinking.

Psychoanalysis.

M. = has unconscious components.

We paid attention to the role of motives and needs.

Historical development (social experience).

M. depends on social factors and historical development.

Interiorization (transition from external to internal).

Ticket 27.

Thinking and intelligence.

Sometimes thinking is identified with intelligence, but intelligence is a broader concept.

Intelligence – mental adaptation (ability to adapt in activities).

Ability to learn.

A multidimensional phenomenon that includes certain operations, content (knowledge, concepts, etc.) and results (information, classes, systems, blocks of information, etc.).

Ananyev.

Multi-level organization of cognitive forces (processes, states, properties).

In the characteristics general intelligence highlight:

- verbal int.– capable of logical generalization and inference.

- non-verbal int.– perception, attention, visual-motor functions.

Ticket 28.

Dynamics of thinking when solving problems.

1. Question .

At the core is a question (beginning).

The question captures the moment of the unknown. But this unknown is connected in one way or another with the known. There is a relationship between the known and the unknown in the question. The ratio should be reasonable (optimal).

2. Condition Analysis .

3. Finding a Rule or Principle .

Algorithmic thinking – sequential operations; successive approach to a solution (completion).

Heuristic thinking - more flexible (if conditions are changeable, or there are many of them, or...). There is a moment of creativity.

Intuitive the nature of thinking is a moment of transience, a moment of unconsciousness.

Discursive the nature of thinking is reasoning.

Transitions are possible.

4. Testing in practice .

The problem is often solved thanks to the tip . The hint is triggered at a certain stage of perception (when a person gets involved in the problem).

The role of experience :

The more competent a person is, the easier he solves problems.

Experience can not only help, but also hinder problem solving (when an unconventional approach/solution is required). Experience sometimes has to be broken.

The influence of memory is manifested in experience.

Experience is an element of individuality.

Also depends on strong-willed, dynamic and personal characteristics(individuality).

Ticket 29.

Mental operations.

Mental operations are a certain intellectual activity.

Components of mental activity/operations:

1. Analysis – mental division into component elements with their subsequent comparison.

2. Synthesis – connection. Construction of a whole from analytically specified parts.

3. Comparison – comparison. Reveals the identity and difference of things.

4. Generalization – connecting the essential and linking it with a class of objects and phenomena. Isolation of common features.

5. Abstraction - highlighting any side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent entity. Isolation.

6. Classification and systematization – generalization options.

7. Specification – application of a general rule/principle to a specific case (bringing a specific case under the general one).

Ticket 30.

Types of thinking.

I. According to the degree of creativity.

1. Algorithmic - sequential operations; successive approach to a solution (completion).

2. Heuristic (eureka - open) - more flexible (if conditions are changeable, or there are many of them, or ...). There is a moment of creativity.

In heuristic thinking, overkill is possible different options(taking into account different conditions) – putting forward hypotheses.

Hypothesizing can occur at an unconscious level.

II. According to the degree of awareness and speed.

1. Intuitive – a moment of transience, a moment of unconsciousness.

2. Discursive - reasoning.

III. According to the nature of the tasks being solved.

1. Visually-effective/Practically-effective.

It proceeds during the solution of various practical problems.

It arises as problems are solved. Characterized by flexibility.

Sometimes you have to act under time pressure -> complex thinking (in terms of attracting knowledge + a small amount of time).

Teplov - drew attention to the complexity of mental activity.

As historical development progresses, this activity becomes more complex.

2. Visual-figurative.

Specific and generalized.

Thinking when some ideas are expressed in figurative form (proverbs, sayings, fables, ...).

Figurative formulations make the thought more accessible and memorable + emotional accompaniment.

3. Theoretical (abstract).

Abstract thinking/verbal-logical/theoretical.

Thinking is more complex.

It is characterized by the fact that it can rise to new levels of generalization and penetrate deep into the subject (allows you to connect more and more distant/different things).

Speed.