In the 18th century, most European states were swept by the educational movement. Thanks to Peter's reforms I Russia is actively involved in this process, joining the achievements of European civilization. Its turn towards Europe, which gave rise to the phenomenon of “Russian Europeanism,” occurred in a typically Russian way - cool and decisive. Interaction with more established art schools Western Europe allowed Russian art to go through the path of “accelerated development”, mastering European aesthetic theories, secular genres and forms in a historically short time.

The main achievement of the Russian Enlightenment is the flowering of personal creativity, which replaces the nameless work of the artists of Ancient Rus'. The Lomonosov formula is being implemented: “the Russian land will give birth to its own Platos and quick-witted Newtons.”

The time is coming for the active development of a secular worldview. Temple art continues its development, but is gradually fading into the background in the cultural life of Russia. The secular tradition is being strengthened in every possible way.

In music XVIII century, both in literature and painting, a new style, close to European, was established classicism.

New forms of high society life—festivities in parks, rides along the Neva, illuminations, balls and “masquerades,” assemblies and diplomatic receptions—contributed to the broad development instrumental music. By decree of Petrav, military brass bands appeared in each regiment. Official celebrations, balls and festivals were served by two court orchestras and a court choir. The example of the court was followed by the St. Petersburg and Moscow nobility, which started home orchestras. Serf orchestras and musical theaters were also created in noble estates. Amateur music-making is spreading, and music education is becoming an obligatory part of noble education. At the end of the century, a diverse music life characterized the life not only of Moscow and St. Petersburg, but also of other Russian cities.

Among the musical innovations unknown to Europe was horn orchestra , created by the Russian imperial chamber musician I.A. Maresh on behalf of S.K. Naryshkina. Maresh created a coherent ensemble consisting of 36 horns (3 octaves). Serf musicians took part in it and played the role of living “keys”, since each horn could make only one sound. The repertoire included classical European music, including complex works by Haydn and Mozart.

In the 30s of the XVIII century, an Italian court opera was created in Russia, performances of which were given on holidays for a “selected” public. At this time, St. Petersburg attracted many of the largest European musicians, mainly Italians, including composers F. Araya, B. Galuppi, G. Paisiello, G. Sarti, D. Cimarosa. Francesco Araya in 1755 he wrote music for the first opera with Russian text. It was a libretto by A.P. Sumarokov based on a plot from Ovid's Metamorphoses. Opera created in the Italian genre series , was called "Cephalus and Procris".

In the era of Peter the Great, such national musical genres as the partes concerto and cant continued to develop.

The cants of Peter the Great’s time were often called “vivata”, since they abound in glorifications of military victories and transformations (“Rejoice, O Russian land”). The music of “welcome” cants is characterized by fanfare turns and solemn rhythms of the polonaise. Their performance was often accompanied by the sound of trumpets and the ringing of bells.

The Peter the Great era marked the culmination of the development of choral partes singing. The brilliant master of the partes concert V.P. Titov took the place of the first musician at the court of Tsar Peter. It was he who was commissioned to write a ceremonial concert on the occasion of the Poltava victory won by Russian troops in 1709 (“Rtsy to us now” - the name “Poltava Triumph” was adopted for the composition).

In the middle of the XVIII century, the desire for choral effects in partes concerts reached exaggerated forms: works appeared whose scores included up to 48 voices. In the second half of the century, the solemn intimate concert was replaced by a new artistic phenomenon - a spiritual concert.Thus, throughout the entire 18th century, Russian choral singing went through a long evolutionary path - from the monumental partes style, evoking associations with architectural style Baroque, to high examples of classicism in the works of M. S. Berezovsky and D. S. Bortnyansky, who created the classical type of Russian spiritual concert.

Russian spiritual choir concert

In the XVIII century, the genre content of choral works has expanded significantly. Choral arrangements emerged folk songs, choral opera music, dance music with a choir (the most famous example is Kozlovsky’s polonaise “Roll the Thunder of Victory” to the words of Derzhavin, who at the end XVIII acquired the significance of the national anthem of the Russian Empire).

The leading choral genre is the Russian spiritual concert, which served as a unique symbol of the ancient Russian tradition. The spiritual concert reached its highest flowering in the era of Catherine (1762- 1796). It was a favorable time for Russian culture. The attempt to revive the spirit of Peter's reforms was largely crowned with success. Politics, economics, science and culture again received impetus for development. The practice of training the most talented representatives of science and art abroad has been resumed. Close cultural contacts between Russia and enlightened Europe could not but influence the emergence of the first experiences of professional composing.

During this period, more than 500 works of the concert genre were created. Almost all Russian composers of the second half known to us turned to him. XVIII century.

Born in the depths of partes polyphony, the spiritual concert throughout its development integrated two principles - the church singing tradition and new secular musical thinking. The concert also became popular as a culminating part church service, and as a decoration for court ceremonies. He was the focus of themes and images that touched upon deep moral and philosophical problems.

If “a partes concerto can be compared to a certain extent with concerto grosso , then the structure of a classical choral concert has common features with a sonata-symphonic cycle. It usually consisted of three or four different parts with contrasting techniques of presentation. In the final part, as a rule, techniques of polyphonic development predominated.

Outstanding foreign composers who lived in St. Petersburg (D. Sarti, B. Galuppi) made a great contribution to the development of the Russian classical choral concert. The peak achievements of Russian choral music of the Enlightenment era are associated with the names of M.S. Berezovsky and D.S. Bortnyansky.

Maxim Sozontovich Berezovsky (1745-1777)

M. S. Berezovsky is an outstanding master of Russian choral music of the 18th century, one of the first representatives of the national school of composers. The surviving work of the composer is small in volume, but very significant in its historical and artistic essence. In the musical culture of the 60-70s of the 18th century, it opens a new stage - the era of Russian classicism.

Berezovsky's name is mentioned among the founders of the classical choral concert a cap p ella : his works, along with the work of the Italian composer Galuppi, represent the first stage in the development of this genre.

The pinnacle of M.S.’s creative quest. Berezovsky became a concert "Do not reject me in my old age" . This a universally recognized masterpiece of Russian music of the 18th century, standing on a par with the highest achievements of contemporary European art. Small in scale, the concert is perceived as an epically monumental work. His music, revealing the diversity spiritual world a person is amazed by the depth of emotions and authenticity of life.

Both in the text and in the music of the concert, personal intonation is clearly heard. This is first person speech. A request is a prayer appealing to the Almighty ( I part), is replaced by a picture of a person being persecuted by malicious enemies ( II part - “Marry and have him”) . Then follows new topic- prayer of hope (“My God, they didn’t go away” - III part), and finally, the finale, full of protesting pathos directed against evil and injustice (“Let those who slander my soul be ashamed and disappear”). The very fact that all the themes of the concert are characterized by certain, concrete emotional features speaks of the fundamental novelty of the style, overcoming the abstract neutrality of the thematic nature of partes singing.

The four parts of the work are connected not only by a single dramatic concept and tonal logic, but also by intonation threads: the melodious theme sounding in the first bars of the concert becomes the intonational basis of all other images. It is especially significant that the initial grain of intonation is transformed into the dynamic and assertive theme of the final fugue “Let them be ashamed and disappear...”, which is the pinnacle in the development of the entire cycle.

Dmitry Stepanovich Bortnyansky (1751-1825)

D. S. Bortnyansky developed the main type of Russian classical choral concert, combining in the music elements of secular musical instrumentalism and vocal church music. As a rule, his concerts have three parts, alternating according to the principle fast - slow - fast. Often the first part, the most significant in the cycle, contains signs of sonatism, expressed in the comparison of two contrasting themes, presented in a tonic-dominant relationship. A return to the main key occurs at the end of the movement, but without thematic repetitions.

Bortnyansky owns 35 concerts for a 4-voice mixed choir, 10 concerts for 2 choirs, a number of other church chants, as well as secular choirs, including the patriotic choral song “Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” on lyrics. V. A. Zhukovsky (1812).

One of the deep and mature works of the master - Concert No. 32 , noted by P.I. Tchaikovsky as "the best of all thirty-five." Its text is taken from the 38th Psalm of the Bible, which contains the following lines: “Tell me, O Lord, my end and the number of my days, so that I may know what age I am... Hear, O Lord, my prayer, and give ear to my cry; do not be silent to my tears...” The concert has three parts, but there is no contrast between them. The music is distinguished by the unity of a mournful-elegiac mood and the integrity of thematic themes. The first movement opens with a theme presented in three parts and reminiscent of Psalm XVII century. The second part is a short episode of a strict choral composition. The extended finale, written in the form of a fugue, exceeds the first two parts in size. The music of the finale is dominated by a quiet, gentle sonority, conveying the dying prayer of a person leaving this life.

Collections of Russian songs

For all advanced Russian culture XVIII century is characterized by a deep interest in the way of life, morals and customs of the people. The systematic collection and study of folklore begins. The famous writer Mikhail Dmitrievich Chulkov is compiling the first collection of folk song texts in Russia.

For the first time, musical notations of folk songs were made, and printed collections with their arrangements appeared: Vasily Fedorovich Trutovsky (“Collection of Russian simple songs with notes”), Nikolai Alexandrovich Lvov And Ivana Pracha (“Collection of Russian folk songs with their voices”).

Lvov-Pracha’s collection includes 100 songs, many of which are classic examples of Russian folklore: “Oh, you, canopy, my canopy,” “There was a birch tree in the field,” “In the garden, in the vegetable garden.” In the preface to the collection (“On Russian Folk Singing”), N. Lvov, for the first time in Russia, pointed out the unique originality of Russian folk choral polyphony.

Songs from these collections were used both by music lovers and composers, who borrowed them for their works - operas, instrumental variations, symphonic overtures.

By the middle of the XVIII century includes a unique collection of Russian epics and historical songs called "Collection of Kirsha Danilov" . There is no reliable information about its compiler. It is assumed that Kirsha Danilov (Kirill Danilovitch) was an improvising singer, a buffoon, who lived in the mining Urals. He wrote down the tunes of the songs in one line without text, which is placed separately.

Russian National Composer School

The formation in the second half of XVIII century the first secular in Russia composer school. Her birth was the culmination of the Russian Enlightenment . The homeland of the school was St. Petersburg, where the talent of its brightest representatives flourished. Among them are the founders of Russian opera V.A. Pashkevich and E.I. Fomin, master of instrumental music I.E. Khandoshkin, outstanding creators of the classical spiritual concert M.S. Berezovsky and D.S. Bortnyansky, creators of the chamber “Russian song” O.A. Kozlovsky and F.M. Dubyansky and others.

Most Russian composers came from a folk background. Since childhood, they have absorbed the living sound of Russian folklore. It was natural and logical, therefore, to include folk songs in Russian opera music (operas by V. A. Pashkevich and E. I. Fomin) and in instrumental works (the works of I. E. Khandoshkin).

According to the tradition of previous centuries, vocal genres, both secular and temple, developed most widely in the Age of Enlightenment. Among them are spiritual choir concert, comic opera and chamber song. As in folklore, in these genres the attitude towards the word as the priority basis of music is preserved. The author of the opera is considered to be the librettist, and the author of the song is the poet; The composer's name often remained in the shadows and was forgotten over time.

Russian comic opera

The birth of the national school of composition XVIII century was closely connected with the development of Russian opera. It began with a musical comedy, which was based on the comedic works of Russian writers and poets: Y. Knyazhnin, I. Krylov, M. Popov, A. Ablesimov, M. Matinsky.

The comic opera was everyday in content, with a simple but fascinating plot from everyday Russian life. Its heroes were smart peasants, serfs, stingy and greedy rich men, naive and beautiful girls, evil and kind nobles.

The dramaturgy was based on the alternation of spoken dialogues with musical numbers based on Russians folk songs. Poets indicated in the libretto which “voice” ( popular song) one should have sung one or another aria. An example is the most beloved Russian opera XVIII century "The Miller is a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker" (1779) A. Ablesimova with music by M. Sokolovsky. Playwright A. O. Ablesimov immediately wrote his texts based on specific song material. M. Sokolovsky's contribution was the arrangement of songs, which could easily have been done by another musician (it is no coincidence that the authorship of the music was attributed to E. Fomin for a long time).

The flourishing of comic opera was facilitated by the talent of outstanding Russian actors - E.S. Yakovleva (in marriage Sandunova, on stage - Uranova), serf actress P.I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, I.A. Dmitrevsky.

Outstanding role in the development of Russian opera XVIII played for centuries Vasily Alekseevich Pashkevich(c. 1742-1797) - one of the largest Russian composers XVIII century. The best of his operas (“Misfortune from the Coach”, “The Miser”, “St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor”) were very popular, they were performed on the stages of many Russian cities until the middle XIX century. Pashkevich was a master of ensemble writing and sharp and apt comedic characterizations. Successfully reproducing speech intonations in vocal parts, he anticipated the principles that would later characterize the creative method of Dargomyzhsky and Mussorgsky.

He proved himself to be a multi-talented artist in opera work. Evstigny Ipatievich Fomin(1761-1800). His opera "Coachmen on the stand" .(1787) stands out for its mastery of choral arrangements of folk tunes of various genres. For each song he found his own style of processing. The opera features lingering songs “It’s not at Father’s house that the nightingale sings” and “The falcon flies high”, lively dance songs “In the field the birch tree was raging”, “The pullet, the young pullet”, “From under the oak, from under the elm”. Several songs selected for “The Coachmen”, three years later, almost unchanged, were included in the “Collection of Russian Folk Songs” by N.L. Lvova - I. Pracha.

In another of his works - the melodrama "Orpheus" (to the text of Y. Knyazhnin after ancient myth, 1792) - Fomin for the first time in Russian opera embodied a tragic theme. The music of melodrama became one of the pinnacle creations of Russian art of the Enlightenment.

In the overture preceding the melodrama, Fomin’s talent as a symphonist was fully revealed. In it, the composer with an amazing sense of style managed to convey the tragic pathos of the ancient myth. In essence, Fomin took the first step towards creating Russian symphonism. So in the bowels of the theater, as it was in Western Europe, the future Russian symphony was born.

Fomin's operas were appreciated only in the middle XX century. During the composer's lifetime they stage fate wasn't happy. The opera "Coachmen on a Stand", written for home theater, remained unknown to the general public. The production of the comic opera “The Americans” (with a libretto by the young I.A. Krylov) was prohibited (the director of the imperial theaters did not like the fact that during the development of the plot the Indians were going to burn two Europeans).

Household vocal lyrics

The birth of a new layer of folklore - city ​​songs It arose on the basis of a folk peasant song, which “adapted” to urban life - a new manner of performance: its melody was accompanied by chord accompaniment of some instrument.

In the middle of the XVIII century in Russia a new type of vocal music emerges - "Russian song" . This is the name given to works for voice with instrumental accompaniment, written to Russian poetic texts. Lyrical in content, “Russian songs” were the predecessors of Russian romance.

The founder of the “Russian song” was a prominent dignitary at Catherine’s court II , educated music lover Grigory Nikolaevich Teplov , author of the first Russian printed songbook “Between business, idleness…” (1759). In style and manner of presentation, Teplov’s songs represent a transitional genre from cant to romance with accompaniment. The form of his songs is usually verse.

The genre of “Russian song” was closely connected with folklore tradition. It is not surprising, therefore, that many original songs have become folk (“Here is the postal troika rushing” by Ivan Rupin to lyrics by F.N. Glinka).

At the end of the XVIII century, talented masters of the chamber vocal genre are emerging - Fedor Dubyansky And Osip Kozlovsky . The “Russian songs” they created, which already have a fairly developed piano part and a more complex form, can be considered the first Russian romances. Echoes of urban life are clearly heard in them (“The Gray Dove Moans” by Dubyansky, “Darling Sat in the Evening”, “Cruel Fate” by Kozlovsky).

The “Russian songs” widely used poems by famous poets: Sumarokov, Derzhavin, Dmitriev, Neledinsky-Meletsky. With their figurative content they are associated with the typical moods of art sentimentalism. As a rule, these are love lyrics: the torments and pleasures of love, separation, betrayal and jealousy, “cruel passion.”

The anonymous “Russian songs” published by F. Meyer (“Collection of the best Russian songs”, 1781) were also very popular.

Chamber instrumental music

In the 70-80s XVIII century, the formation of professional chamber instrumentalism began in Russia. At this time, Russian musicians are mastering complex shapes instrumental music, develop the genres of solo sonata, variations, chamber ensemble. This process was closely related to the widespread spread of home music playing. For a long time, the music of urban or estate life remained the “nutrient medium” in which the early shoots of the national instrumental style matured.

The first Russian instrumental ensembles belonged to Dmitry Bortnyansky. This is a piano quintet and a “Chamber Symphony”, which is actually a septet for piano, harp, two violins, viola da gamba, bassoon and cello.

Particularly beloved were all kinds of dance pieces - minuets, polonaises, ecosses, country dances - and variations on themes of folk songs for various instruments. He created many such variations for the violin Ivan Evstafievich Khandoshkin (1747-1804), a representative of the St. Petersburg school - composer, outstanding virtuoso violinist, conductor and teacher. Khandoshkin was famous for the art of improvisation, and was also good at playing the viola, guitar and balalaika.

In the history of Russian music, Khandoshkin’s name is associated with the creation of a national violin school. Most of his creative heritage consists of variations on themes of Russian folk songs and sonatas for violin, two violins, violin and viola, or violin and bass. With these works, Russian chamber instrumental music for the first time emerged from the narrow circle of home music-making, acquiring a virtuosic scope. It is also important that they achieved a fairly organic unity of the European instrumental language and Russian folklore. Researchers believe that the melodies of some songs taken by the composer as themes for variations were first recorded by him himself.

Variations on Russian themes for piano were written by Trutovsky (for example, on the theme of the folk song “There were a lot of little mosquitoes in the little forest”), Karaulov, as well as foreign musicians who worked in Russia.

The role of foreign musicians in the development of Russian music was dual. Fair reproaches from the progressive public were caused by the blind admiration of aristocratic circles for everything foreign, associated with the underestimation of Russian art. At the same time, the activities of foreign composers, performers and teachers contributed to the general rise musical culture and the education of domestic professional musicians.

The fate of his creative legacy is dramatic: most of the composer’s works, performed throughout the 19th century, remained in manuscript and were stored in the Court Singing Chapel. In the first decades XX century, the entire rich archive of the chapel with unique autographs of many Russian composers was burned.

Success and recognition, the patronage of the highest persons came to Berezovsky early. Having already become famous in Russia at a young age, he soon became the first Russian composer accepted as a member of the famous Bologna Academy. However, despite all the high distinctions, having returned to his homeland after a 9-year stay abroad, Maxim Berezovsky was unable to achieve any noticeable position. His enrollment in the Court Chapel for the modest position of an ordinary employee clearly did not correspond to either the foreign experience gained or his creative capabilities. Obviously, this caused the composer a feeling of bitter disappointment, although his choral spiritual works were learned by all lovers of church singing and were highly appreciated by his contemporaries. chapel, military and serfs orchestras, private theaters, or received home education. In a cultural environment XVIII century, music occupied the lowest position, it depended entirely on patronage of the arts, and the musician himself in aristocratic society occupied the position of a semi-servant. The works of Russian authors were often considered “second-class” music compared to the works of Germans or Italians. Not a single domestic master achieved a high position at court.

The clever and cunning miller Thaddeus, pretending to be an all-powerful sorcerer, completely fooled his simple-minded neighbors. However, it all ends with a cheerful wedding of the girl Anyuta and the handsome village guy Filimon.

At the postal station - the base - the coachmen gather. Among them is the young coachman Timofey, who was a success in face, in mind, and dexterity. With him is his young beautiful wife Fadeevna, loving her husband. But Timofey has an envious man and his worst enemy - the thief and scoundrel Filka Prolaza. This Filka dreams of selling lucky Timofey as a recruit and taking possession of his wife, who has long attracted his attention. And Timofey would have been a soldier if not for a passing officer. He helps free Timofey, as the sole breadwinner of a peasant family, from service. Filka himself ends up among the soldiers.

Melodrama is a theatrical play with music that alternates with recitation, and sometimes performed simultaneously with the recitation of the text.

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.

During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of ​​God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art movements

In addition to philosophy, there was also art culture era of Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. Incarnation better world turned out to be parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.

The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures ancient mythology, and the main plots are love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, and paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theater

The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

Most famous comedy The 18th century was “The Marriage of Figaro”, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

The main literary genre of the 18th century was the novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, the sentimental work of Johann Goethe “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, in which main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu's Persian Letters. Documentary novels appeared in the genre travel notes or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for already at the beginning of the new 19th century domestic literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, experienced its golden age.

Music

It was during the Enlightenment that modern musical language. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony today. Another German composer George Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories (characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt,” “Saul,” “Messiah”).

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven. Exactly these Viennese composers rethought previous musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. Culture of the Enlightenment and any other period human history has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassed, having mastered these instruments in very early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic Beethoven was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. The composer created most of his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).

Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moon” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus cultural development. England has become a clear example social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, and political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

German culture of the 18th century existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms of changing the social and state system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

Development of philosophy, science, visual arts, literature. French encyclopedists J.J. Rousseau and D. Diderot are outstanding representatives of the educational movement. Aesthetic views of encyclopedists.

The transition from polyphonic art to the homophonic-harmonic style of writing in music.

Opera art. The crisis of the Italian opera seria and French lyrical tragedy, which affected drama, the stage embodiment of the performance, and the practice of vocal performance. The genre of opera buffa. Its themes, images, connections with folk music. Giovanni Pergolesi (1710-1736) and his opera “The Maid and Mistress” is a classic example of the new genre. Features of the development of action and musical composition, principles of thematic development. Basic vocal forms, the role of the orchestra.

French comic opera. Folk fair performances and vaudeville as its origins. Opera plots. French song as the basis of intonation content. The verse-strophic structure of the arias, the genre-visual use of the orchestra. "War of the Buffoons". The opera “The Village Sorcerer” by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), the approval of a new melodic structure. Operas by F. Philidor, P. Monsigny. Opera by André Grétry (1741-1813) “Richard Lion Heart"is a genre and everyday opera of a lyrical direction.

Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787). The meaning of art by K.V. Gluck in the history of the development of opera. Creative path. The first innovative musical dramas were Orpheus and Alceste. The struggle between the “Gluckists” and the “Piccinists”. Aesthetic views of K.V. Gluck. Principles of operatic dramaturgy. Intonation renewal and dramatization of vocal parts. The role of the choir, ballet, orchestra. Historical meaning operatic creativity of K.V. Gluck for the further development of musical theater.

Instrumental music of the 18th century. Formation of sonata-symphonic and concert genres in the conditions of various national cultures. Development of the principles of sonata development in instrumentalism of the 18th century. Formation of the classic line-up symphony orchestra. The significance in the development of instrumental music of the 18th century of the symphonic school created by Czech composers. Frantisek Vaclav Micha (1694-1744) – creator of one of the first symphonies. Representatives of the Mannheim School: Jan Stamitz (1717-1757), Frantisek Richter (1709-1789). Anton Filtz (1730-1760). Characteristic musical images, features of themes, principles of development and form. Innovation in dynamic style of musical performance. The influence of J. Stamitz’s school on the work of I.K. Bakh, V.A. Mozart and other composers.

Musical classicism and the main stages of its development

Classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) - style in art XVII– XVIII centuries The name "classicism" comes from an appeal to classical antiquity as the highest standard of aesthetic perfection. Representatives of classicism drew their aesthetic ideal from examples of ancient art. Classicism was based on the belief in the rationality of existence, in the presence of order and harmony in nature and the inner world of man. The aesthetics of classicism contains a sum of mandatory strict rules that a work of art must meet. The most important of them are the requirement for a balance of beauty and truth, logical clarity, harmony and completeness of composition, strict proportions, and a clear distinction between genres.

There are 2 stages in the development of classicism:

Classicism of the 17th century, which developed partly in the fight against Baroque art, partly in interaction with it.

Enlightenment classicism of the 18th century.

Classicism of the 17th century is in many ways the antithesis of Baroque. It receives its most complete expression in France. This was the heyday of the absolute monarchy, which provided the highest patronage to court art and demanded pomp and splendor from it. The pinnacle of French classicism in the area theatrical arts became the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, as well as the comedies of Moliere, on whose work Lully relied. His “lyrical tragedies” bear the mark of the influence of classicism (strict logic of construction, heroism, sustained character), although they also have baroque features - the pomp of his operas, the abundance of dances, processions, and choirs.

The classicism of the 18th century coincided with the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is a broad movement in philosophy, literature, and art that covered all European countries. The name “Enlightenment” is explained by the fact that the philosophers of this era (Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau) sought to enlighten their fellow citizens, tried to solve issues of the structure of human society, human nature, and his rights. The Enlightenmentists proceeded from the idea of ​​the omnipotence of the human mind. Faith in man, in his mind, determines the bright, optimistic attitude inherent in the views of the figures of the Enlightenment.

Opera is at the center of musical and aesthetic debates. French encyclopedists considered it a genre in which the synthesis of arts that existed in the ancient theater should be restored. This idea formed the basis of K.V.’s opera reform. Gluck.

The great achievement of educational classicism is the creation of the genre of symphony (sonata-symphonic cycle) and sonata form, which is associated with the work of composers of the Mannheim school. The Mannheim School developed in Mannheim (Germany) in the middle of the 18th century on the basis of the court chapel, in which mainly Czech musicians worked (the largest representative was the Czech Jan Stamitz). In the work of composers of the Mannheim school, the 4-movement structure of the symphony and the classical composition of the orchestra were established.

The Mannheim school became the predecessor of the Viennese classical school - a musical direction that denotes the work of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. In the work of the Viennese classics, the sonata-symphonic cycle, which became classical, as well as the genres of chamber ensemble and concert, were finally formed.

Among the instrumental genres, the most popular were different kinds household entertainment music - serenades, divertissements, sounded in the open air in evening time. Divertimento (French entertainment) - instrumental multi-movement works for a chamber ensemble or orchestra, combining the features of a sonata and suite and close to a serenade and nocturne.

K. V. Gluck - the great reformer of the opera house

Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714 - 1787) – German by birth (born in Erasbach (Bavaria, Germany)), nevertheless, is one of the outstanding representatives of the Viennese classical school.

Gluck's reform activities took place in Vienna and Paris and were carried out in line with the aesthetics of classicism. In total, Gluck wrote about 40 operas - Italian and French, buffa and seria, traditional and innovative. It was thanks to the latter that he secured a prominent place in the history of music.

The principles of Gluck's reform are set out in his preface to the score of the opera Alceste. They boil down to the following:

Music should express poetic text opera, it cannot exist on its own, outside of dramatic action. Thus, Gluck significantly increases the role of the literary and dramatic basis of the opera, subordinating the music to the drama.

Opera should have a moral impact on a person, hence the appeal to ancient subjects with their high pathos and nobility (“Orpheus and Eurydice”, “Paris and Helen”, “Iphigenia in Aulis”). G. Berlioz called Gluck “Aeschylus of music.”

Opera must comply with “the three great principles of beauty in all forms of art” - “simplicity, truth and naturalness.” It is necessary to rid the opera of excessive virtuosity and vocal ornamentation (inherent in Italian opera), and intricate plots.

There should not be a sharp contrast between the aria and the recitative. Gluck replaces the secco recitative with an accompanied one, as a result of which it approaches an aria (in the traditional opera seria, recitatives served only as a link between concert numbers).

Gluck also interprets the arias in a new way: he introduces features of improvisational freedom, and connects the development of musical material with a change in the psychological state of the hero. Arias, recitatives and choruses are combined into large dramatic scenes.

The overture should anticipate the content of the opera and introduce listeners into its atmosphere.

The ballet should not be an insert number that is not connected with the action of the opera. Its introduction should be conditioned by the course of the dramatic action.

Most of these principles were embodied in the opera “Orpheus and Eurydice” (premiere in 1762). This opera marks the beginning of a new stage not only in Gluck's work, but also in the history of the entire European opera. Orpheus was followed by another of his innovative operas, Alceste (1767).

In Paris, Gluck wrote other reform operas: Iphigenia in Aulis (1774), Armida (1777), Iphigenia in Tauris (1779). The production of each of them turned into a grandiose event in the life of Paris, causing heated controversy between the “Gluckists” and the “Piccinists” - supporters of traditional Italian opera, which was personified by the Neapolitan composer Nicolo Piccini (1728 - 1800). Gluck's victory in this controversy was marked by the triumph of his opera Iphigenia in Tauris.

Thus, Gluck turned opera into an art of high educational ideals, imbued it with deep moral content, and revealed genuine human feelings on stage. Gluck's operatic reform had a fruitful influence on both his contemporaries and subsequent generations of composers (especially the Viennese classics).

Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the key eras in the history of European culture, associated with the development of scientific, philosophical and social thought. This intellectual movement was based on rationalism and freethinking. Starting in England, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and covered other European countries. The French enlighteners were especially influential, becoming “masters of thought.”

Musical art can be placed on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.

In the second half of the 18th century, the art of the Viennese classical school of music emerged, which played a decisive role in all subsequent European musical culture.

The development of musical art is, first of all, associated with the names of such great composers as I.S. Bach, G.F. Handel, J. Haydn, V.A. Mozart, LW Beethoven.

Franz Joseph Haydn

Franz Joseph Haydn (March 31, 1732 - May 31, 1809) was an Austrian composer, a representative of the Viennese classical school, one of the founders of such musical genres as the symphony and string quartet. The creator of the melody, which later formed the basis of the anthems of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Youth. Joseph Haydn (the composer himself never called himself Franz) was born on March 31, 1732 on the estate of the Counts of Harrach - the Lower Austrian village of Rohrau, near the border with Hungary, in the family of Matthias Haydn (1699-1763). His parents, who were seriously interested in vocals and amateur music-making, discovered in the boy musical abilities and in 1737 they sent him to relatives in the city of Hainburg an der Donau, where Joseph began to study choral singing and music. In 1740, Joseph was noticed by Georg von Reutter, director of the chapel of Vienna's St. Stefan. Reutter took the talented boy to the choir, and he sang in the choir for nine years (including several years with his younger brothers).

Singing in a choir was a good, but only school for Haydn. As his abilities developed, he was assigned difficult solo parts. Together with the choir, Haydn often performed at city festivals, weddings, funerals, and took part in court celebrations.

In 1749, Joseph's voice began to break and he was kicked out of the choir. The subsequent ten-year period was very difficult for him. Josef took on various jobs, including being a servant to the Italian composer Nicola Porpora, from whom he also took composition lessons. Haydn tried to fill the gaps in his musical education by diligently studying the works of Emmanuel Bach and the theory of composition. The harpsichord sonatas he wrote at this time were published and attracted attention. His first major works were two brevis masses, F-dur and G-dur, written by Haydn in 1749 before he left the chapel of St. Stefan; opera “The Lame Demon” (not preserved); about a dozen quartets (1755), the first symphony (1759).

In 1759, the composer received the position of bandmaster at the court of Count Karl von Morzin, where Haydn found himself with a small orchestra, for which the composer composed his first symphonies. However, von Mortzin soon began to experience financial difficulties and stopped his musical project.

In 1760, Haydn married Maria Anna Keller. They did not have children, which the composer greatly regretted.

Service at Esterhazy. In 1761, a fateful event occurred in Haydn's life - he became the second bandmaster at the court of the Esterhazy princes, one of the most influential and powerful aristocratic families in Austria. The duties of the bandmaster included composing music, leading the orchestra, playing chamber music for the patron and staging operas.

During his almost thirty-year career at the Esterhazy court, the composer composed a large number of works, his fame is growing. In 1781, while staying in Vienna, Haydn met and became friends with Mozart. He gave music lessons to Sigismund von Neukom, who later became his close friend.

On February 11, 1785, Haydn was initiated into the Masonic lodge “Toward True Harmony” (“Zur wahren Eintracht”). Mozart was unable to attend the dedication because he was attending a concert with his father Leopold.

Throughout the 18th century, in a number of countries (Italy, Germany, Austria, France and others), processes of formation of new genres and forms of instrumental music took place, which finally took shape and reached their peak in the so-called “Viennese classical school" - in the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Instead of polyphonic texture great importance acquired a homophonic-harmonic texture, but at the same time, large instrumental works often included polyphonic episodes that dynamized the musical fabric.

Freelance musician again. In 1790, Prince Nikolai Esterhazy (English) Russian died, and his son and successor, Prince Anton (English) Russian, not being a lover of music, dissolved the orchestra. In 1791, Haydn received a contract to work in England. Subsequently he worked extensively in Austria and Great Britain. Two trips to London, where he wrote his best symphonies for Solomon's concerts, further strengthened Haydn's fame.

While passing through Bonn in 1792, he met the young Beethoven and took him on as a student.

Haydn then settled in Vienna, where he wrote his two famous oratorios: The Creation of the World (1799) and The Seasons (1801).

Haydn tried his hand at all kinds musical composition, but not in all genres his creativity manifested itself with equal force.

In the field of instrumental music, he is rightly considered one of the largest composers of the second half of the 18th and early XIX centuries.

Haydn's greatness as a composer was most manifested in his two final works: the great oratorios “The Creation of the World” (1798) and “The Seasons” (1801). The oratorio “The Seasons” can serve as an exemplary standard of musical classicism. Towards the end of his life, Haydn enjoyed enormous popularity.

Work on oratorios undermined the composer's strength. His last works were “Harmoniemesse” (1802) and the unfinished string quartet op. 103 (1802). The last sketches date back to 1806; after this date, Haydn did not write anything else. The composer died in Vienna on May 31, 1809.

The composer's creative heritage includes 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, oratorios (The Creation of the World and The Seasons), 14 masses, 24 operas.

List of essays:

Chamber music:

• § 12 sonatas for violin and piano (including sonata in E minor, sonata in D major)
• § 83 string quartets for two violins, viola and cello
• § 7 duets for violin and viola
• § 40 trio for piano, violin (or flute) and cello
• § 21 trio for 2 violins and cello
• § 126 trio for baritone, viola (violin) and cello
• § 11 trio for mixed winds and strings
• 35 concertos for one or more instruments with orchestra, including:
  • § four concertos for violin and orchestra
  • § two concertos for cello and orchestra
  • § two concertos for horn and orchestra
  • § 11 concertos for piano and orchestra
  • § 6 organ concerts
  • § 5 concertos for two-wheeled lyres
  • § 4 concertos for baritone and orchestra
  • § Concerto for double bass and orchestra
  • § Concerto for flute and orchestra
  • § Concerto for trumpet and orchestra
  • § 13 divertissements with clavier

There are 24 operas in total, including:

• § “The Lame Demon” (Der krumme Teufel), 1751
• § "True Permanence"
• § “Orpheus and Eurydice, or the Soul of a Philosopher”, 1791
• § “Asmodeus, or the New Lame Demon”
• § “Pharmacist”
• § “Acis and Galatea”, 1762
• § “Desert Island” (L"lsola disabitata)
• § "Armida", 1783
• § “Fisherwomen” (Le Pescatrici), 1769
• § “Deceived infidelity” (L"Infedelta delusa)
• § “An Unforeseen Meeting” (L"Incontro improviso), 1775
• § “The Lunar World” (II Mondo della luna), 1777
• § “True Constancy” (La Vera costanza), 1776
• § “Loyalty Rewarded” (La Fedelta premiata)
• § “Roland the Paladin” (Orlando Рaladino), a heroic-comic opera based on the plot of Ariosto’s poem “Roland the Furious”
• 14 oratorios, including:
  • § "World creation"
  • § "Seasons"
  • § “Seven words of the Savior on the cross”
  • § "Return of Tobias"
  • § Allegorical cantata-oratorio “Applause”
  • § oratorio hymn Stabat Mater
• 14 masses, including:
  • § small mass (Missa brevis, F-dur, around 1750)
  • § large organ mass Es-dur (1766)
  • § Mass in honor of St. Nicholas (Missa in honorem Sancti Nicolai, G-dur, 1772)
  • § Mass of St. Caeciliae (Missa Sanctae Caeciliae, c-moll, between 1769 and 1773)
  • § small organ mass (B major, 1778)
  • § Mariazellermesse, C-dur, 1782
  • § Mass with timpani, or Mass during the war (Paukenmesse, C-dur, 1796)
  • § Mass Heiligmesse (B-dur, 1796)
  • § Nelson-Messe, d-moll, 1798
  • § Mass Theresa (Theresienmesse, B-dur, 1799)
  • § Mass with theme from the oratorio “The Creation of the World” (Schopfungsmesse, B-dur, 1801)
  • § Mass with wind instruments (Harmoniemesse, B-dur, 1802)

A total of 104 symphonies, including:

• § “Farewell Symphony”
• § "Oxford Symphony"
• § “Funeral Symphony”
• § 6 Paris Symphonies (1785-1786)
• § 12 London Symphonies (1791-1792, 1794-1795), including Symphony No. 103 “With tremolo timpani”
• § 66 divertissements and cassations

Works for piano:

• § Fantasies, variations
• § 52 piano sonatas