The origins of architecture in primitive society.

Farmers began to organize, rebuild and develop the environment according to their own standards in two directions at once - with the creation of architecture of small and large forms. Small forms were used for private purposes, primarily residential and commercial buildings, and large ones were used for the construction of public institutions, mainly religious temples and royal palaces. The earliest form of human habitation was encampments - temporary unfortified camps of primitive hunters and gatherers. The sites of Stone Age hunters were replaced by settlements (villages) of farmers, which could take the form of a fortress (a structure made of huge rough-hewn stones) or a settlement (a group of residential buildings and outbuildings surrounded by an earthen rampart or wooden fence). Later, the fortress and the fortification, as two different types of settlements, are combined and turned into fortified fortified cities (there were especially many of them in the Middle Ages). Somewhat later - during the period of ancient Eastern civilizations - the architectural organization of the space of populated areas, the creation of cities and towns, and the regulation of settlement systems became a special area - urban planning.

Archaeologists claim that the Neanderthals were the first to begin burying their ancestors 80-100 thousand years ago. A similar thing happened in the era of Mousterian culture.

Funeral rites reflected a dual desire - to remove, neutralize the deceased and take care of him: tying up the corpse, stoning, cremation, etc. were combined with providing the deceased with implements, as well as sacrifices, mummification, etc.

In architectural terms, burials are divided into two main types: with grave structures (mounds, megaliths, tombs) and ground ones, i.e. without any grave structures.

Mounds (Turkic) are burial mounds made of earth or stone, usually hemispherical or conical in shape.

Megaliths (from mega... and...lit) - religious buildings of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. from huge unprocessed or semi-processed stone blocks. The most famous are the megaliths of Western Europe (Stonehenge, Karnak), North Africa and the Caucasus. Megaliths include dolmens, menhirs, and cromlechs.

DOLMENS

Dolmens are usually “boxes” made up of stone slabs, sometimes joined by long or short galleries. They were collective burial chambers, as evidenced by bone remains and votive treasures (ceramics, jewelry, polished stone axes). Dolmens could be either free-standing structures or part of more complex structures.

MENHIRS

A menhir is a stone pillar dug vertically into the ground. Their height varies from 0.80 meters to 20. Free-standing menhirs are usually the tallest. The “record holder” was Men-er-Hroech (Fairy Stone), from Lokmariaker (Morbihan), which was destroyed around 1727. Its largest fragment was 12 m, and in its entirety it reached 20 m in height, with an approximate weight of 350 tons. Currently, all the largest menhirs in France are located in Brittany:

Menhir in Kerloas (Finistère) - 12 m.

Menhir in Kaelonan (Cote-d'Armor) - 11.20 m.

Menhir in Pergal (Côte d'Armor) - 10.30 m.

CROMLECHI

An example of a cromlech is such a well-known building as Stonehenge.

Cromlechs are called ensembles of menhirs standing, most often, in a circle or semicircle and connected by stone slabs lying on top, however, there are menhirs collected in a rectangle (as in Crucuno, Morbihan).

ANCIENT EGYPT

We know the Egyptian style solely thanks to the developed funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians.

The monuments that have reached us are temples, palaces and tombs, i.e. monumental structures designed to personify Eternity. Although the style has existed for 4,000 years, the decorating tradition has remained virtually unchanged.

Walls, pylons, columns, as a rule, were covered with hieroglyphic writings and scenes of funeral rituals, where human figures were depicted in a characteristic “Egyptian” pose - the head and lower body in profile, and the torso and arms in front.

The exception is the Amarna period - the reign of Amenhotep IV (1368-1351 BC). The ban on numerous old cults and the proclamation of the sun itself as the true god gave impetus to the development of the arts “towards man.”

ANTIQUITY

Antiquity refers to architecture ancient Greece and Rome.

Ancient Greek architecture, which arose on the islands of the Aegean Sea, was so harmonious and holistic that it was subsequently perceived by later styles (Renaissance, Classicism, Neoclassicism) as a primary source, as a kind of standard to follow.

Based on mythology, naively representing the forces of nature, Greek art was, in fact, quite realistic.

It is impossible not to mention the emergence of geometry as a science, which made it possible to understand proportions as a measure of harmony. The greatest achievement of Greek architects was the “invention” of the Doric and Ionic orders.

The ancient Romans, being good students of the Greeks, not only fully adopted their heritage, but also developed it, complementing the order system with the Tuscan and Composite orders.

The real achievement of the Romans was that by combining the Greek order, the Italic arch and the cylindrical vault (the Greeks had neither one nor the other), they “invented” the arched order cell. The Romans also experimented with the stunningly beautiful form of the dome.

BYZANTIUM

In the East, the so-called centric type of temple was born and evolved, when the central room was made large and, as a rule, covered with a dome.

The dome, being the personification of heavenly paradise for believers, was present as an element of any temple. However, the dome had a rather unpleasant “structural weakness” - it transferred a gigantic thrust to the walls, which is why the latter had to be made very thick. Therefore, chronicles often noted the collapse of domes.

So it was with the famous Cathedral of St. Sofia in Constantinople. (This is now the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, so mentally remove the four tall minaret towers.)

When re-erecting the dome, Anthymius and Isidore for the first time used a design that would later be called a dome on sails, and will be widely used to this day.

Architecture of primitive society

Paleolithic era

The most ancient images are Paleolithic Venus. Primitive female figurines. A generalized image of a woman-mother, a symbol of fertility and keeper of the hearth.

Mesolithic era(Middle Stone Age)

Multi-figure compositions predominate in rock art

Neolithic era

Rock painting becomes schematic and conventional.

Megaliths- these are huge stone structures

Menhir– this is a free-standing stone, more than 2 meters high

Dolmens- These are several stones dug into the ground, covered with a slab.

Cromlech is a complex structure in the form of circular fences with a diameter of up to 100 m.

The most famous cromlech is Stone HENGE in England built from 120 stone blocks, up to 7 tons each, with a diameter of 30 m.

Architecture of Ancient Egypt

Religion plays a major role in the life of society.

The burial place of noble people is mastaba- This is the shape of a low parallelogram. The low ones form a step pyramid. Considered to be the mother of the Egyptian pyramids Pyramid of Zhdoser. The construction of pyramids reflects 3 basic principles: gigantic size, pyramidal shape and the use of stone as the main building material. The most famous and tallest the Pyramid of Cheops, 147 m high, the outside of the pyramid was usually covered with slabs polished to a mirror shine. Its impressive size and mirror shine evoke feelings of awe and fear. Feeling of monumentality (a person feels insignificant).

Temples of Luxor and Kornak

The temples are connected by a three-meter alley of sphinxes.

Diagram of the temple: the alley of sphinxes approaches the entrance, which is being decorated pylons. The entrance leads into an open courtyard surrounded by walls, columns and statues. Through the second entrance we get to hypostyle hall supported by rows of columns. In the hall, more than 120 columns form 16 rows. The height of the columns is 20 m, the diameter is 3.5 m, the capital (the upper part of the columns) is represented in the form of lotus or papyrus flowers. The columns were painted, the ceiling was also dark blue with flying birds. From the hypostyle hall one could go into a small sanctuary; only the pharaoh and priests could enter there. In front of the entrance to the temple there were usually obelisks symbolizing a ray of light.

Palace of Queen Hatshepsut

The temple stands at the foot of the rocks, which serve as the background and merge with it into a single whole. The temple is located on three terraces connected ramps(sloping platforms)

Thebes city

The city has served as the capital of Egypt for many centuries. The city is located on both banks of the Nile. On the eastern shore, where the sun rises, is located city ​​of the living, on the western bank there were tombs of kings and nobles - City of dead.

Architecture of Ancient Western Asia

In the interfluve there was neither stone nor wood suitable for construction. The buildings were erected from unbaked bricks. The buildings were built on a compacted clay platform, which protected against flooding. Here a new form of temple was developed, which is called Ziggurat.

A ziggurat is a stepped tomb, a symbol of a stairway to heaven. The number of tiers could be different, the tiers were painted in different colors: the lower tier is black, the middle one is red, the upper one is white. At the very top there was a sanctuary. Was built at that time Etemenanke Ziggurat, which became the prototype of the Tower of Babel.

Temple in Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar 2. The palace housed Hanging Gardens - Babylon, which were considered 1 of the 7 wonders of the world. The only thing that has survived to this day is gate of the tower of Ishtar, are located in Berlin.

Architecture of Ancient Greece

The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization became an exemplary artistic workshop for a large region - from Balkan Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea to the coast of Asia Minor.

Architecture of the island of Crete

In Crete, palaces were mainly built for secular and religious needs. The palace could serve as both the residence of the city ruler and a fortress. Palaces were usually associated with mountain sanctuaries built in caves. Each palace was oriented towards a specific sacred mountain.

Sacred Gardens.

The sacred garden was usually located in the southeast corner of the palace complex. There was a “theater area” for ritual stage performances and a paved area with stone-lined pits (for storing grain, or sacred trees were planted in them).

Major eras of Ancient Greece:

1. Geometrics 9-8 centuries BC. e.

2. Archaic 7-6 century BC

3. Classic: early 490-450 BC

High 450 BC

Late 400-323 BC

4. Hellenism 3-1st century BC

Geometrics, the name of the style based on decorative paintings of vessels, patterns such as rhombus, square, circle prevailed there... each vessel had a body, neck, neck, rim, handles, legs. The main thing about the vessel is its extraordinary stability, called tectonics.

Archaic era. The temples repeated the idea of ​​the Cretan Megaron- this is a rectangular building with an entrance on a narrow end wall with columns that either framed the entrance, or divided the internal space along, or stood against the walls.

Archaic created a unified architectural language – order system. oorprp

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Warrant – an architectural composition consisting of vertical load-bearing supports in the form of columns and horizontal supporting parts. The most common in ancient architecture:

1. .Doric– identified the body of a man. Powerful, minimal decoration, no base. Named after the Dorian tribe.

2. Ionic– identified a woman, it is more graceful than Doric, has a base, and is named after the Ionian tribe.

3.
Corinthian– identifies a girl, more elegant, maximum jewelry.

Later, architects began to choose orders for temples depending on the gender, spirit and Olympian authority of the deity.

Classical era.

Large sanctuaries are being built: Apollo at Delphi, Hera at Olympia. The most famous ensemble is Athens Acropolis, which stood on a high cliff above the city. This is a unique architectural complex, which included temples, a pinakothek (art gallery), statues of gods. The main temple is the Parthenon temple. There are 8 columns on the end walls, 17 on the side walls. The outer columns are of the Doric order, the walls of the temple itself were crowned with an Ionic frieze. It was designed for external perception.

The most beautiful temple in the Acropolis - Erechtheion, with a portico of caryatids. Woman figures – caryatids, men - Atlanta. An even number of columns is required.

Greek art created a special genre memorial steles- This is a tombstone relief. Memorial tombstones with high relief were placed over the burials, which were placed in aedicules- these are beggars framed by two small columns with entablatures and a pediment above them.

Architecture of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered, from the British Isles to Egypt.

Having adopted the rationally organized strict layout of cities from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it. The layout of the cities corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and discipline, the attraction to entertainment and pomp. The Romans first began to build “model” cities, the prototype of which were Roman military camps. The city had the shape of a square, which was crossed by two perpendicular streets (cardo and decumanum) at the intersection of which the center was built.

Republican period. Late 6th mid 1st century BC the formation of a world slave-holding power. Common types of structures: amphitheaters (Colosseum), baths(baths), triumphal arches, aqueducts– a bridge with a water pipeline, palaces, villas, theaters, temples, monuments...

Passion for Greek art manifested itself in an appeal to the order system, but here it served mainly a decorative function. The wall served as a supporting function. The Romans invented monolithic-shell system building a wall. The base consisted of two narrow brick walls, between which broken crushed stone and concrete were poured. The outside walls were lined with marble or other stone. Magma powder was used instead of cement. A large space belonged to an arch supported by pillars. This made it possible to build multi-story structures with vaulted and domed ceilings. The main form of ceiling was the vault, it was made of stone. When two barrel vaults intersect, a cross vault is obtained. If the spans are equal, it is a square. The inner surface of the intersection arches is formed by ribs into which the pressure of the arch is concentrated. This made it possible to cut through the supporting walls with semicircular arches.

Of all the Roman orders, Tuscan is the simplest in decoration and the heaviest in proportions.

The roads were of great strategic importance; they were paved with concrete and crushed stone, slabs of lava and tuff. Bridges are being built - aqueducts.

Social life took place on the market square - forums(similar squares were built in ancient Greece and were called agoras). All the main city events took place at the forum. The architectural ensemble included temples - basilicas- a public building in the form of an elongated rectangle, merchants' shops - tabernas, squares were decorated with statues, porticoes, rostral columns - columns to which the bows of defeated ships were attached. The “sacred road” also passed here. Main type public buildings became a temple. It was formed as a result of crossing Italian and ancient Roman traditions with Greek ones. Mostly built pseudoperiptors with entrance only from the main facade, as well as monoptera consisting of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade with an entrance at the end.

City of Pompeii. The city had a regular layout. The streets were decorated with the facades of houses, at the bottom of which were tavern shops. The population of Pompey is 10,000 people, and the amphitheater, built like the Greeks in a natural depression, accommodated 20 thousand people. Construction of Pompeian houses domus. These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard and faced the street with blank end walls. The main room was the atrium (from Lat. smoked), that is, rooms that performed a sacred function. The atrium repeated the model of the Greek cult pit “mundus”. Rectangular hole in the roof - compluvium, the pool located underneath – impluvium. The atrium served as a “world pillar”, that is, it connected the house with heaven and the underworld. The atrium also contained valuables, a chest containing family valuables, an altar-type table, and a cabinet for storing ancestral wax masks. The walls inside the house were painted

First Pompeian style. Second end of 1st century BC this is a geometric ornament that resembled the lining of walls with semi-precious stones. The style was named inlay.

Second Pompeian style. 1st century BC – architectural. The interior turned into something like a city landscape. The entire height of the walls was filled with images of colonnades, porticoes, and facades.

Third Pompeian style – candelabra, late 1st century BC 50 AD It was distinguished by the ornamentation of architectural motifs, the predominance of light openwork structures.

Fourth Pompeian style 63 AD – 1st century AD – fantastic architecture. Dynamic spatial composition, an abundance of unevenly illuminated figures, being in motion, variegated color.

In contrast to the houses with their luxury and comfort were multi-story houses for the plebeians.

Empire period. Began with the reign of Augustus 27 BC. – 14 AD, the golden age of the Roman state. Rome acquired an appearance corresponding to the prestige of the world capital. Mausoleum of Augustus. A round building 90 m in diameter consisting of two concentric walls, raised on an embankment. Emperor Neuron erects the famous "golden house", which was a palace and a villa at the same time. The embodiment of power were the triumphal arches, which were erected in honor of the victory over the enemy and as a sign of the consecration of new cities.

Example, Arch of Titus, in memory of the Roman victory in the Jewish War. The height of the arch is 15.4 m, width 5.33 m. The arch served as the basis for a sculptural group - an emperor on a chariot. The arch is decorated with an attic dedicated to Emperor Titus. Spectacles occupy a large place in the life of the Romans. Flavius amphitheater - Colosseum(from Latin rough). Built in the 70-80s. AD On sunny days, a canvas canopy was stretched over the pins above of blue color(velu, velarium)
. The Colosseum accommodated 50,000 spectators, height 48.5 m. The building is divided into 4 tiers, each of which is decorated with orders. The lower tier is Doric, the second is Ionic, the third is Corinthian, the fourth is pilasters of the Corinthian order. In every doorway there were statues of famous people of Rome. There are several basements that housed animals and utilities (water pipes). The building evoked a feeling of austere energy through its enormous scale, generalized forms and solemn rhythms.

Tuscan order - invented by the Romans, similar to Doric, but there are no flutes, a minimum of decorations, only a column and a capital.

Age of Emperor Hadrian. Adrian was a supporter of everything Greek. Under him, the most spiritual monument of world architecture was created Pantheon- temple of all gods. It was a classic example of a central domed building. The proportions of the building are perfect - the diameter of the dome is 43.5 m, almost equal to the height of 42.7 m, that is, a ball can be fit into the space under the dome. Light penetrates through the holes in the dome, 9 m in diameter (the eye of the pantheon), this is the only source of light, the space is divided into tiers, the walls are lined with colored marble. The interior is divided by columns of the Corinthian order, niches with statues, an attic floor with false windows and pilasters, ending with an entablature. The dome is divided by 5 annular rows of cassettes, decreasing towards the top. The building evokes a feeling of peace, tranquility, inner harmony, escape from earthly at enter the world of spirituality.

In the 1st century AD a new type of building appears – giant baths- These are public baths designed for 2-3 thousand people. It was a complex of premises with different purposes, intended for comprehensive development person. The halls of cold and warm rooms, forming the center, the core of the composition, are adjacent to numerous rooms for gymnastic exercises and mental exercises. The premises amazed with the luxury of decoration, most famous baths of Caracalla.

Architecture of Byzantium

On the site of the old Greek colony of Byzantium, a city was founded by Emperor Constantine - Constantinople, which on May 11, 330 was officially declared the capital of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, the empire was divided into 2 parts: western and eastern. The first fell under the onslaught of Germanic tribes, and the eastern one existed for another millennium.

The first Christians of the Roman Empire were forced to hide; they gathered in catacombs– labyrinths of caves for burying the dead. The catacombs were for them both a church (from the Latin assembly) and martyria– a building over the martyr’s grave and a cemetery. The walls were whitewashed and decorated with paintings. Christ was depicted as a young shepherd surrounded by nature. Later, Constantine legalized Christianity as one of the state religions.

Constantinople(second Rome). The city was not like traditional Roman cities. The city was located on a triangular peninsula. The center became the imperial palace, located in the least accessible part of the peninsula. The palace overlooked a large square, from which the main street began, framed by rows of arches, through which a fan of side streets seemed to be drawn into the main street. This layout was determined not only by the shape of the island, but also revealed the exclusive role of imperial power. The city was protected from enemies by walls. The enemy from land was met by a 10 m deep ditch filled with water. Behind it rose a wall 3 human heights high, behind it a second wall with towers twice as tall as the first, and then a third 6-7 m high with a very deep foundation. A similar wall ran along the seashore. The main exit was a golden gate with three openings.

Christianity inherited 2 types of buildings: 1- centric buildings that served mainly as martyriums and baptismal sanctuaries. They were small, and in plan they represented a square, circle, octagon or equilateral (Greek) cross. Inner space the centric temple gathered worshipers in the middle, where they remained in peace.

2 - basilical- This is an elongated rectangle. The building was divided by longitudinal rows of supports into several rows - naves. The middle nave is usually wider and higher than the others, most often it ended with a semicircular projection - apse. The interior of the basilica orients the person who enters to action and movement.

The most successful type of temple turned out to be a shortened basilica, oriented with the altar to the east, and topped with a dome.

In the plan of the basilica a transverse nave appears - transept. A dome was erected in the center of the resulting cross. This scheme began to be called cross-dome. Christians decided that the apse should correspond to the Bethlehem cave, where Christ was born and where he was buried.

The largest and most famous Christian temple in Constantinople Church of Hagia Sophia. The main task of the architects was to build a building of grandiose proportions. To erect a building almost 100 meters long, and even cover it with a dome, without having the raw materials for concrete production, was an impossible task. It was decided to make the “skeleton” of the dome from numerous arches and vaults: two large semi-domes were adjacent to the central dome, and smaller domes were adjacent to them. The thrust force spreads and fragments until it is absorbed by special column pylons. Due to the light penetrating into the arches along the perimeter of the base of the dome, it seems that the dome is “floating” in the air.

The height of the building is 54.8 m. Dome diameter – 32.6m

Later, when Constantinople was captured by the Turks, the cathedral was rebuilt as a mosque - 4 minarets were added to it, and the mosaics were removed. This cathedral served as a model for the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv. Served as the basis for the construction of temples in Rus'.

France

Church of Saint Paul and Peter in the monastery of Cluny. Length 127m,

Germany.

Basically the so-called "transitional style", which combined Romanesque and Gothic features.

Italy.

Antique features predominate (architecture of ancient Greece and Rome), example cathedral and tower in Pisa.

Gothic architecture

The Romans considered Gothic art barbaric. By the end of the 12th century, cities became the center of culture, politics, and economic life. Cities have significant privileges; they had a body of self-government. In the center of the city a town hall was formed - a modern city hall. A tower was erected above the town hall, which symbolized the symbol of freedom. Cathedrals were supposed to contain large quantity people than before, so the design of the building changes: the vault now rests on the arches, and not on the walls, which in turn are on the pillars, lateral pressure is transmitted flying buttresses– external semi-arches and buttresses– building crutches, pillars. Thanks to this design, it became possible to reduce the thickness of the walls and cut windows into them. The smooth surface of the walls disappears, and stained glass windows, various sculptures, etc. appear in their place. The Gothic cathedral is light and directed upward. The boundaries between parts of the temple have blurred. The space of the cathedral - with numerous decorations, light pouring through the stained glass windows - created an image of the heavenly world, embodying the dream of a miracle.

France. Notre Dame de Paris or cathedral Notre Dame of Paris. Construction time: 11th-14th centuries. 5-nave basilica on an island in the Seine River. Length 129 m. Three entrances - portals, there are niches with statues of French kings, called the “royal gallery”. The western facade is decorated with a “rose” window, and on the towers there are chimeras - fantastic creatures.

Chartres Cathedral - characteristic features of French Gothic. Relatively low towers and a mandatory rose window.

The largest cathedral is in Amiens, height 42.5 m, length 145 m.

England. Gothic architecture is mainly associated with monasteries. Building gothic style not preserved.

Germany.

Cathedral in Cologne. The height is 46 m, compared to France, the towers are taller and pointed, there is no rose window. Many lancet windows.

Italy. Doge's Palace in Venice.

Once upon a time there was a prison. A striking example of “flaming” Gothic - due to decorations in the form of tongues of flame.

Architecture of Asian countries

Arab countries Iran and Türkiye

In the first third of the 7th century, a new religion arose in the city of Mecca (Arabian Peninsula) - Islam, with Muhammad as its founder. His sermons were recorded and concentrated in the Koran. In the 8th century, the state Arab Caliphate was created. The architecture of Islam was formed in accordance with local building traditions. During the campaign, Muslims outlined the territory on the sand, determining the direction to Kaaba(Arabic cube) - sanctuaries in the form of a rectangular stone fence. The Kaaba has become the sacred center of Islam, and Muslims pray facing it.

The first mosques built appeared in 665-670. AD They are a square courtyard surrounded by galleries on pillars. On the side facing the Kaaba, 5 or more columns were placed, which created a prayer hall.

Over time, mosques began to be distinguished by purpose, small - masjid, served as a place of individual prayer. Jami and the cathedral– for collective prayers on Friday, and the main jami is called (the great mosque) Jami il - Kabir. Country mosque – musawa.

A distinctive feature of the mosque was mihrab - a sacred niche oriented towards the Kaaba (flat, conventional or concave). The pointed end of the mihrab means a point on "sacred axis of Islam", thanks to which the prayer’s mental connection is made with the earthly Kaaba, reflecting his spiritual connection with the heavenly Kaaba.

Since the 8th century, additions have been made to the mosque. minarets– towers from which people call for prayer, usually there are 4 of them. In the west of the Muslim world they are 4-sided, in the east they are round-trunked, sometimes they are spiral-shaped.

Example of Islamic palace architecture is the Alhambra Palace in Grenada (Spain). The massive walls of the fortress with towers and bastions, traps and secret entrances hide the “treasure” - a palace, luxurious and comfortable. This is typical Muslim architecture - a pearl hidden in a shell.

Arabesque. This is a complex pattern characteristic of Arabic art, created on the basis of precise mathematical calculations. Arabesque is built on the repetition and/or multiplication of several pattern elements. Inscriptions, plant motifs, images of birds and

animals or other fantastic creatures. The walls of the mosque were painted with such arabesques.

Architecture of India

3rd century BC Buddhism is spreading in India as the state religion. The first structures are memorial columns on which the decrees of the rulers are carved - stambha, height 10 m. ends with capitals with images of animals. Later, funerary monuments appeared - stupas. The stupas are shaped like a hemisphere - this means a symbol of the sky and infinity. The central pole of the stupa is the axis of the universe, connecting heaven and earth, a symbol of the world tree of life. "Umbrella" at the end of the pole is a stepwise ascent to nirvana, also a symbol of power. The stupa is surrounded by a fence on the 4 cardinal directions, in which there are gates decorated with relief.

Popular in India cave temples – chaitya, that is, carved directly into the rock. Inside, in the widest corridor there are stupas. The only source of light was a large horseshoe-shaped window. The sculptural pairs on the facade personified two principles in nature - male and female, and their union gives birth to all life on earth.

Kandarya Temple. 10th -11th centuries. Parts of the building: sanctuary, hall for worshipers, vestibule, entrance located on the same axis and tightly adjacent to each other. Each part of the building is separated by a tower superstructure, the highest part being the sanctuary.

Famous philosopher 19th century Rabindranath Tagore described the art of India as follows: “India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe.”

Example of Muslim architecture in India - Taj Mahal mausoleum.

Architecture of Asia

Two main religions spread in Indochina: Buddhism and Hinduism. In Southeast Asia, Hindu ideas about the center of the Universe were identified with Mount Meru, the habitat of the gods. The king acted as the deputy of god on earth or as the incarnation of the god from Mount Meru, therefore temples and royal palaces were built in accordance with this concept, that is, the buildings resembled mountains.

Angor – Wat complex. 12th century AD, on a stepped mountain surrounded by a wall, there were 5 temples - towers, as well as many other superstructures, a courtyard, stairs, galleries. In plan, the complex was a rectangle of 1300 - 1500 m. A canal was laid around it. A road with statues of lions and nagas leads across the canal to the main entrance.

Architectural complex Borobudur. 8th – 9th century. The temple was built on the top of a hill, on a huge stone platform above it, tapering pyramidally, 5 terraces with bypass corridors rise. Above there are 3 round terraces on which 72 stupas are placed. Each stupa has a Buddha statue. The entire structure is crowned in the center with a large bell-shaped stupa. Steep stairs lead to the top of the temple on each of the four sides.

Symbolism of the temple: the temple represents Mount Meru, a stepwise ascent upward to truth and enlightenment. The relief depicted Buddha's assistants. Buddha statues represented spiritual perfection. The crowning composition - a large stupa symbolized the highest level of knowledge of the world.

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Ancient China

According to the ancient Chinese, the earth is a square. China itself is in the center, the sky is shaped like a circle, so they call themselves the middle kingdom or the heavenly kingdom. These forms acquire symbolism in sacrificial altars. Round altars are for heaven, and square altars are for earth. In the 3rd century BC. After the wars, the small kingdoms united into a single empire, and the city of Sanyang became the capital of the empire.

By order of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the most powerful fortification was created from the remains of the fortifications of the kingdoms - The great Wall of China. The length at that time was 750 km, height 10 m, width 5 - 8 m. The wall runs along the tops of the rocks.

Emperor's Tomb. The tomb is surrounded by two rows of walls, forming a square plan. On top is a cone-shaped hill. The walls of the tomb are lined with marble and jade, a map of the empire is drawn on the stone floor, there was also a sculpture of 5 sacred mountains, and the ceiling looks like a firmament with stars. In 1974 at a distance of 1.5 km from the tomb, 11 parallel underground tunnels were discovered with a giant clay army, where each warrior is endowed with individual features, made life-size and painted.

In the 4th – 6th centuries AD. Buddhist monasteries play an important role. Towers containing Buddhist relics - pagodas, the number of tiers in the pagoda is necessarily odd.

« Iron Pagoda"is a 50 m tower with 13 m tiers, lined with rust-colored ceramic tiles.

Since 1421, Beijing has become the capital of China. In plan, the city consisted of two rectangles adjacent to each other and surrounded by walls with connecting gates. The entire city is crossed by the great Beijing Highway, which ends at the northern wall, where the most important events in the life of the country take place. The highway had more symbolic meaning, it was impossible to walk along it, since the path was blocked by artificial hills up to 60 m high. Such hills are protectors from evil spirits, which, according to legend, could only move in a straight line. A hill belonged to every pagoda, since according to the ancient Chinese, “a city without a peak is the same as without walls, it was in danger of inevitable destruction.”

The roofs of buildings and structures began to be covered with colored tiles. In accordance with the symbolism: gold color - the power of the emperor; blue – sky, peace, tranquility; green – tree foliage.

In the center of Beijing the main ensemble is Forbidden City. The city is surrounded by red walls 10 m high and a moat with water. There is an imperial palace, consisting of several parts: front doors, various halls, corridors, living rooms, theaters, gardens, gazebos... in the northern part there is imperial garden with an artificial pond, rare tree species and more. Each building has its own poetic name. For example, the hall of supreme harmony, the temple of prayers for the harvest, the temple of heaven.

A characteristic feature of the ensemble: simplicity and clarity of form combined with elegance, brightness, and solemnity.

Architecture of Tibet

Religion – Buddhism. The secular and spiritual ruler is the Dalai Lama (ocean of wisdom).

Tibetan monasteries- these are large architectural ensembles, located, as a rule, on the slopes of mountains and rise in stepped terraces to the peaks, so their silhouette seems to be a natural continuation of the mountains.

The monasteries include: monks' quarters, manuscript storage, temples, workshops, and a large area for religious performances.

The roofs of the temples are crowned with gold and bronze symbols of Buddhism zhaptsany- These are cylindrical vessels with lists of prayers inside.

Example, Potala Palace(16th – 17th centuries) is the residence of the Dalai Lama.

Architecture of Japan

Religion is Buddhism, which came from China.

Traditional japanese house . The house is made of wooden frame. Raised on wooden posts by about 30 cm - this is necessary for ventilation.

The house has one fixed wall with a fireplace, and the other three walls can be moved apart (to merge with nature). The walls are covered with paper or silk. A veranda surrounds the perimeter of the building.

The building is low, as the proportions are designed for a seated person. A must-have element in every home is tokonama- a niche in a fixed wall where a picture could hang or a flower arrangement could stand – ikebana.

Every house must have a garden or a fragment of nature (with stones, a hill, trees, ponds) or a symbolic “dry garden”. The basis is sand and a composition of stones.

Example , Ryoanji Garden in Kyoto(garden of 15 stones) is a 19x23 m area. The area is covered with sand, consisting of a composition of stones. When observed from any point, only 14 stones are visible.

Palaces of Italy...

Palazzo( hence the Russian "chamber") - a city mansion of the nobility. Characteristic features of the manifestation of tectonics on facades:

1st tier is processed with roughly processed stone “rust” (stones with geometrically processed edges - diamond rustication),

The 2nd tier (in the form of a brick wall) was faced with bricks with jointing,

3rd tier – smooth surface.

Powerful overhanging cornice.

Availability courtyard with arches around the perimeter. This type of building served as a model for noble buildings throughout the world (except America).

Andrea Palladio

The nickname originated from greek goddess Athens Pallas, because this young man was considered capable of reviving the beauty and wisdom of the ancient Greeks.

Palladio outlined his ideas in his work “Four Books on Architecture.” His compositions are distinguished by strict orderliness, naturalness, and peace in that his buildings fit into the environment.

Example, Palazzo Rotunda. The building is almost cubic in shape, with porticos attached to four facades.

The origins of architecture date back to the late Neolithic. It was then that stone was already used for the construction of monumental buildings. But the purpose of most of the monuments that have come down to us from that period is not known.

A menhir is usually a free-standing stone with traces of processing, sometimes oriented in some way or marking a certain direction.

A cromlech is a circle of standing stones, in varying degrees of preservation and with different orientations. The term henge has the same meaning. This term is usually used in relation to structures of this type in the UK. However, similar structures existed in prehistoric times also in Germany (Goloring, Goseck Circle) and in other countries.

A dolmen is something like a stone house.

They are all united by the name “megaliths,” which simply translates as “big stones.” For the most part, according to some scientists, they served for burials or were associated with the funeral cult. There are other opinions. Apparently, megaliths are communal buildings with a socializing function. Their construction represented primitive technology a daunting task and required the unification of large masses of people. Some megalithic structures, such as the complex of more than 3,000 stones at Carnac (Brittany) France, were important ceremonial centers associated with the cult of the dead. Other megalith complexes have been used to determine the timing of astronomical events such as solstices and equinoxes. In the Nabta Playa area in the Nubian desert, a megalithic structure was found that served for astronomical purposes. This structure is 1000 years older than Stonehenge.

Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a structure of 82 five-ton megaliths, 30 stone blocks weighing 25 tons and 5 huge so-called trilithons, stones whose weight reaches 50 tons. Folded stone blocks form arches that once served as a perfect indicator of the cardinal directions. Scientists suggest that this monument was built in 3100 BC by tribes living in the British Isles to observe the Sun and Moon. The ancient monolith is not only a solar and lunar calendar, as previously thought, but also represents an accurate model solar system in cross section.

Cromlech Broughgar or Sun Temple, Orkney. Initially it had 60 elements, but now it consists of 27 rocks. Archaeologists date the Cromlech of Brodgar or the ring of Brodgar to 2500 - 2000 BC. The Ring of Brodgar was first mentioned in the 1529 manuscript “Description of the Orcadian Islands” by a certain Joe Ben, a wandering monk or pilgrim whose identity is not precisely established. Not only the Brodgar monument, but also the more ancient one, located here, the cromlech of Stenness, and in general, everything around them, in this small area - the entire area - ritual, sacred, communicative - is literally stuffed with mounds, group and individual burials, even “ cathedral”, as well as the dwellings and villages of the Neolithic people. All these monuments are united into a single complex, protected by UNESCO. Archaeological research is currently being carried out in Orkney.

The most famous dolmens are located in Scandinavia, on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe and Africa, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, in the Kuban region, and in India. However, most of them are in the Caucasus - about 2.5 thousand! Here along the Black Sea coast (megaliths generally gravitate towards the seas) you can find “classical” tiled dolmens, monolithic dolmens, entirely hollowed out in the rock, dolmen structures made from a combination of stone slabs and blocks laid in two or more rows. They also talk about the spiritual content of these amazing structures, their energy charges. Scientists believe that approximate age dolmens are 3-10 thousand years old.

Log buildings (second half of the 2nd millennium BC - beginning of the 1st millennium), in particular mounds, are a common type of memorial structures. Their prototype was residential log houses. When erecting a mound, a powerful wooden frame with a wooden floor was built in a pit, inside which a burial chamber was located. Sometimes the space between the two chambers was filled with stones. The chambers were covered with rolls of logs, which were covered with birch bark and bark. Then they covered it with earth, forming a mound, often of considerable height. A stone was thrown onto the top of the hill.

Log dwellings were the first step towards creating above-ground logged wooden buildings. Long horizontally laid logs made multifaceted buildings, which over time transformed into one-room rectangular houses. There was a fireplace in the middle, with smoke coming out of a hole in the roof above it. This type of building was later called "megaron", the basis of Greek architecture

Thus, primitive art is presented in the following main types: graphics (drawings and silhouettes); painting (images in color, made with mineral paints); sculptures (figures carved from stone or sculpted from clay); decorative arts (stone and bone carving); reliefs and bas-reliefs.

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Slide captions:

Primitive art. The presentation was made by: Elvira Pikova, 10th grade student of the MKOU secondary school in the village of Kobra. Supervisor: E. A. Rychkova.

What was the impetus for the creation of the first cave painting? What lightning flashed in the brain of the very first artist? Did it occur to him to trace the shadow on the rock with a square? Or did the hand itself begin to apply strange strokes and zigzags on the same rock? At that moment, from the darkness of complete, almost animal, ignorance, a powerful light shone, which later, through centuries and millennia, would be called the all-encompassing word - Art. The most ancient images on the walls of caves: chaotic wavy lines and handprints. This hand is the forerunner of the hands of Rublev, Leonardo, Picasso. This is the beginning of world artistic culture. Primitive art existed on all continents (except Antarctica), and arose simultaneously in different parts of the planet.

Primitive art is the art of the era of primitive society. Having emerged in the late Paleolithic around 33 thousand years BC. e., it reflected the views, conditions and lifestyle of primitive hunters (primitive dwellings, cave images of animals, female figurines). Experts believe that the genres of primitive art arose approximately in the following sequence: stone sculpture; rock art; clay dishes. Neolithic and Chalcolithic farmers and herders developed communal settlements, megaliths, and pile buildings; images began to convey abstract concepts, and the art of ornament developed.

The technique of making tools and some of its secrets were passed down from generation to generation. Excavations at sites of Upper Paleolithic people indicate the development of primitive hunting beliefs and witchcraft among them. They made figurines of wild animals from clay and pierced them with darts, imagining that they were killing real predators. They also left hundreds of carved or painted images of animals on the walls and vaults of caves. Archaeologists have proven that monuments of art appeared immeasurably later than tools - almost a million years. In ancient times, people used materials at hand for art - stone, wood, bone. Much later, namely in the era of agriculture, he discovered the first artificial material - refractory clay - and began to actively use it for the manufacture of dishes and sculptures. Wandering hunters and gatherers used wicker baskets because they were easier to carry. Pottery is a sign of permanent agricultural settlements.

Rock art is mainly divided into three periods: Paleolithic art; Mesolithic art; Neolithic art.

Paleolithic art is the most ancient. Cave painting of that time could convey shape, volume and movement. Famous sources of paleolithic art are the caves of Lascaux and Altamira.

Mesolithic art is associated with the depiction of fellow tribesmen, with group scenes of hunting, pursuit and war. Each human figure is depicted very conventionally, the emphasis is on actions. For example, archery, spearing or chasing fleeing prey.

Neolithic art was in demand during the Stone Age. Rock art is becoming more and more conventional. The drawn people and animals become more and more attractive, conventional images of tools and weapons, vehicles and geometric shapes appear.

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The word "architecture" translated from Greek means "construction". This is one of the oldest species human activity. The surviving remains of human settlements indicate the existence of different ways of life of people in different areas globe and at different stages of human development.

The oldest monumental structures that have come down to us belong to stone age and are called megalithic. The name comes from the Greek words “megas” - large and “litos” - stone, that is, structures made of large stones. They are found in the most different countries Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, India, Japan and other parts of the world. Such buildings are called menhirs, dolmens, and cromlechs.

Isn’t it amazing that the seemingly limitless variety of forms of world architecture, including its most modern achievements, merely reproduces in different ways these eternal principles laid down by the still nameless architects of the Stone Age.

Metal structures acted as public buildings, but people have needed housing since ancient times. It is unlikely that anyone is able to find out where and when a person built his first house. In the Neolithic, in some places, dwellings were built from wood, reeds, twigs and clay. In others, buildings are erected on stilts and so-called communal houses. The settlements found in Northern Italy (approximately 1800 BC) had a peculiar character. Platforms arranged in a circle were arranged on the pillars, on which huts were located. A wooden fence was erected around the village, and a ditch was dug and filled with water. As a result of research in Anatolia (Turkey), an ancient fortified settlement dating back to the 6th millennium BC was discovered.

But, perhaps, the most ancient human dwelling is described in V. Glazychev’s book “The Origin of Architecture.” The house reconstructed by scientists was built 11 thousand years ago in the Wadi en-Natuf valley (upper reaches of the Jordan River) and looked like this: a round depression in a stone base, flexible poles inserted into pre-hollowed holes and converging at the top. Then the poles were intertwined with thinner rods and coated with clay. In the middle of the base of this round house is the place of the hearth, with a hole above it. There are still many millennia ahead, discoveries and disappointments, the grandeur of the Egyptian pyramids and the perfection of the Athenian Acropolis, the monumentality of Rome and the frantic impulse of Gothic, but there, in the distant Wadi en-Natuf, a decisive step has already been taken, the great craft of architecture is already counting down the times. A person finds shelter over his head, protection from bad weather and danger, warmth and coolness not under a tree or in a cave, but in a specially built permanent house.

The most important moment in the emerging agricultural civilization was the emergence of a completely new type of art, impossible and unknown to hunters and gatherers. It's about about architecture. Taking refuge in a randomly discovered cave is one thing, but building artificial structures of arbitrary sizes and shapes from clay, wood or stone, placing them in specially selected places, is a completely different matter.

Architecture refers to the art of designing and constructing buildings in accordance with predetermined goals and a design that meets the technical capabilities and aesthetic criteria of the local community (town, city, country). As an art form, architecture already enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically shapes the human environment, expresses social ideas in artistic images.

Farmers began to organize, rebuild and develop the environment according to their own standards in two directions at once - with the creation of architecture of small and large forms. Small forms were used for private purposes, primarily residential and commercial buildings, and large ones were used for the construction of public institutions, mainly religious temples and royal palaces. This should also include large engineering projects, such as the large irrigation systems of Ancient Egypt.

The earliest form of human habitation was encampments - temporary unfortified camps of primitive hunters and gatherers. The sites of Stone Age hunters were replaced by settlements (villages) of farmers, which could take the form of a fortress (a structure made of huge rough-hewn stones) or a settlement (a group of residential buildings and outbuildings surrounded by an earthen rampart or wooden fence). Later, the fortress and the fortification, as two different types of settlements, are combined and turned into fortified fortified cities (there were especially many of them in the Middle Ages).

Somewhat later - during the period of ancient Eastern civilizations - the architectural organization of the space of populated areas, the creation of cities and towns, and the regulation of settlement systems became a special area - urban planning.