Parts of speech.

Grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning that, determined by the belonging of a word to a certain class of words, manifests itself in the system of forms of a given word.

Lexical meanings in all languages ​​are expressed by root morphemes. Grammatical meanings (GM) in languages ​​can be expressed in different ways. For all languages, grammatical methods are reduced to two types: synthetic and analytical.

Synthetic methods are called in those cases when the means of expressing GL are located inside the word and are combined with lexical ones.

Analytical methods are called in cases where the means of expressing the GL are outside the word, that is, separated from the lexical meaning.

Synthetic modes of expression

Grammatical meaning

1. Affixation– expression of civil rights using a prefix, suffix, postfix or inflection, that is, affixes. This method is widespread in Indo-European, Semitic and Turkic languages.

book – books (singular – plural)

decide – decide (non-owl. species – owl. species)

2. Internal inflection– alternation of sounds within a root to express grammatical differences. The method is common in modern Germanic, Indo-Iranian languages ​​and Russian.

(English) foot - feet (leg - legs)

sing - sang (sings - sang)

(Russian) to pick – to pick (nesov.vid – sov.vid)

collect – collect (non-sov.view – owl.view)

However, not every change in the sound composition of morphemes can be recognized as alternation. The grammatical method is that alternation that leads to a change in grammatical meaning.

Internal inflection often appears in a word in conjunction with an affixation: ask - ask (non-sov.view - sov.view); (English) child – children (child – children).

3. Accent - this is the expression of grammatical meaning due to the movement of stress in a word. Stress is a grammatical method only if it is mobile and unfixed (for example, in Russian).

cut – cut out (unsov.view – owl.view)

hands – hands (singular, genitive case – plural, nominative case)

Stress as a grammatical method can be combined with affixation:

house – houses (singular – plural)

scream – shout (non-sov.view – owl.view)

4. Repeat (reduplication) - this is a partial or complete doubling of a stem or a whole word without changing its sound composition or with its partial change to express the grammatical meaning. In Russian, repetitions sometimes appear to express the duration of an action: you work, you work, you walk, you walk. Repeating adjectives is a way of expressing superlatives: snow white-white. The repetition may be accompanied by a prefix: the house is big, very big. Repeats are widely available in Indonesian, Vietnamese, Chinese and Japanese.

5. Suppletivism is the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different roots or from different stems:

take – take (non-sov.view – owl.view)

person – people (singular – plural)

(English) good – better (good – best)

Supplementism is widely represented in Indo-European languages. In Russian, suppletivism is used in the formation of aspectual pairs of verbs along with affixation.

6. Incorporation (word formation) - this is a combination of roots located in a certain way to express grammatical meaning. Compounding is very developed in English, German, Indian, Iranian, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Japanese. For example, in Chinese, the phrase “hao zhen” means “a kind person.” The word “hao,” being in a postposition in relation to the main word, takes on a different meaning: “xiu hao” - “to do good.”

Analytical modes of expression

Grammatical meanings

1. Function words. They convey the relationships between significant words and express their grammatical meanings. Function words include articles, prepositions, postpositions, auxiliary verbs, words of degree, particles.

· Article – a function word whose grammatical functions are different. The article is not found in all languages. First of all, the article acts as an indicator of a noun. Attaching an article to unchangeable words and phrases turns them into nouns. This is observed in Germanic and Romance languages.

In some languages, such as German and French, the article is a way of expressing the categories of gender and number. In German, the article is a way of expressing relationships between words in a sentence, that is, it has the function of expressing the category of case.

· Prepositions and postpositions have the same grammatical functions: they express the relationships between words in a speech chain, clarifying the meaning of cases. A preposition is a function word that comes in position before a significant word. A postposition is a function word that comes in a position after a significant word.

In the ancient Indo-Iranian languages, prepositions and postpositions were not differentiated. Performing certain grammatical functions, they could stand in relation to a noun in both preposition and postposition. Later, a system of postpositions was formed in Indian languages. Modern Persian has a developed system of prepositions and one postposition. The system of prepositions is widely developed in English, French, German, and Indonesian; to a lesser extent - in Russian.

· Auxiliary verbs – These are function words that differ from other function words by being divided into morphemes. With the help of auxiliary verbs, complex (analytical) verb forms are formed in languages. In such forms, the main verb is the bearer of lexical meaning. It is used in an unchanged form (for example, an infinitive), and the totality of grammatical meanings (person, number, tense) is expressed by the forms of auxiliary verbs:

I will write

You you will write

He will write

The system of auxiliary verbs is widely developed in English, French, German, as well as in Russian, Iranian, Japanese, Chinese, and Hindi.

· Words of degree. They form analytical forms of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Degree words are present in languages ​​of various families: Indo-European, Tibetan and Polynesian languages. By origin, these are adverbs of degree (very, more) or pronominal formations (most, all).

· Functional words include particles . In grammar, they can express various modal meanings (target setting of the utterance): for example, convention (studied would) or motivation ( let honors).

2. Intonation. Intonation as a grammatical device relates not to a word, but to a phrase and is thus grammatically related to the sentence and its structure.

· First of all, intonation can create the modal form of a sentence: with the same order of the same words in many languages, it is possible to distinguish by intonation interrogative sentences from affirmative ( He came. - He came?), sentences expressing doubt, from sentences expressing surprise ( He came... - He... came?). These shades are expressed by gradation of pitch, intensity and tempo.

· The placement and gradation of pauses within a sentence can show the grouping of sentence members: I couldn’t work for a long time And I couldn’t work for a long time.

· Pausing can differentiate between a simple and a complex sentence: I see a face with wrinkles And I see: the face is covered in wrinkles.

· The acceleration of the tempo and the brittle normal intonation wave stand out introductory words and expressions, how they differ from members of a sentence: He might be here - He might be here.

However, not every language can easily use intonation as a grammatical device. So, for example, French intonation is very indifferent to the expression of grammar, so in French one can ask and answer with the same intonation wave.

3. Word order. The role of word order in a sentence is largely related to the use of the grammatical method of affixation in the language. The greater the role of affixation in a language, the less role word order plays. In a sentence I am reading a book Any rearrangement of words is possible without changing their grammatical meaning. Changing the order of words plays only a stylistic or logical role. This is due to the presence of affixes. In a sentence The anchor touches the chain the noun is perceived as a subject or an object depending on its position before or after the predicate; The subject comes first, the object comes last. Thus, Russian has a relatively free word order.

In a number of other languages, word order is fixed. For example, in English, French, German. Word order plays a big role in the Indonesian language. For example, the definition always follows the word being defined: guru kita (our teacher). When the word order is changed, the meaning of the statement changes: kita guru (we are teachers). Word order plays an important role in Chinese and Vietnamese.

Parts of speech

Parts of speech- these are the main lexical and grammatical classes of words into which the words of the language are distributed. The grammatical description of any language begins with clarification of the question of parts of speech. For the first time, Greek scientists established a harmonious diagram of parts of speech in relation to their language. With a slight modification, this scheme was repeated by the Romans in relation to the Latin language. Thanks to the role of the Latin language in the culture of the Middle Ages, this ancient scheme began to be used to describe the grammar of European languages, which has survived to this day. Scientists try to squeeze the grammatical categories of different languages ​​into a pre-developed ancient scheme, regardless of the real differences that exist in different languages. Individual parts of speech are determined based on lexical rather than grammatical meaning: names of objects refer to nouns, names of actions refer to verbs, etc. On the same basis, words such as first second Third, fall into numerals. However, the question of parts of speech is much more complex. In different languages, parts of speech relate to each other differently, and they should be defined grammatically, i.e. abstracting from the particular and the concrete. Thus, the usual scheme of parts of speech in Russian and other European languages ​​is completely unsuitable for many languages ​​of Asia and Africa. For example, in Chinese, what we define in Indo-European languages ​​as adjectives and verbs are combined under the broader category predicative. In Russian, adjectives are combined with nouns as names as opposed to verbs. The very approach to determining parts of speech in the Chinese language differs from the corresponding approach in the Russian language, since words in the Chinese language, as a rule, do not have external, morphological features, which are rich in words in the Russian language. In order to determine which part of speech a particular word belongs to in Chinese, you should be guided by two signs:

What part of the sentence does this word serve as?

· with which categories of words this word can or cannot be combined.

Words as building material, being at the disposal of grammar, first of all receive the meaning of one or another part of speech, which affects not only their syntactic use and the ability or inability to make certain combinations, but also their morphological properties. Therefore, for example, verbs in the Russian language are words that express, regardless of their lexical meaning, any actions or states. The noun has a completely different characteristic: its general grammatical meaning is “objectivity”. But this does not mean that nouns are only names of things or objects. On the contrary, overcoming all the diversity of things, beings, phenomena, a noun is able to represent in grammar any action and quality as “objectivity”.

Thus, parts of speech are grammatical categories (and not lexical or lexico-grammatical), the composition and arrangement of which are special in each language, and they are determined by a set of morphological and syntactic differences and possibilities, and not by their lexical properties.

Being the central link in the system of morphological categories, parts of speech themselves represent a complex, ordered system. This system was studied in the most detail in the Russian language by academician V.V. Vinogradov, who identified four types of words:

independent parts of speech

· function words

modal words

· interjections

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, features, processes, states, etc. that exist in objective reality. In modern Russian, seven independent parts of speech are contrasted: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, state category, adverb.

Noun

A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.

Nouns name objects in the broad sense of the word: these are things (table, wall, trousers, book), persons (person, child, youth), substances (cereals, water, copper), living beings and organisms (dog, bacteria, snake , virus, fish), facts, events, phenomena (fire, performance, fear, vacation, thunderstorm). Nouns can also denote qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states (kindness, stupidity, blueness, running, decision, hustle).

Based on semantic characteristics, nouns are divided into lexical-grammatical categories . First of all, common and proper nouns are distinguished. Names common nouns serve as generalized names for homogeneous objects (furniture, computer, mountain). Names own serve as the names of individual objects isolated from a number of homogeneous ones (Ural, Tatyana, Mars, Volga). The boundary between proper names and common nouns is unstable and fluid. Common nouns easily become proper names, nicknames and nicknames (the dog Sharik, the city of Orel).

Common nouns are four types: concrete, abstract, material and collective.

Specific nouns are words that name things, persons, facts and phenomena of reality. They can be presented separately and counted: pencil, engineer, duel. Varieties of concrete nouns include:

· personal (student, father, sister);

· objects (book, carpet, stone);

single (pearl, fluff, snowflake);

· event-related (hurricane, session, revolution).

Most concrete nouns have singular and plural.

Distracted(abstract) nouns are words that name abstract concepts, properties, qualities, actions and states: glory, laughter, good, proximity, travel, swimming. Most of the abstract nouns are words motivated by adjectives and verbs (curvature, cowardice, massage, competition). A minority of abstract nouns are unmotivated words: trouble, mind, fear, comfort, sadness. Abstract nouns usually do not have a plural form.

Nouns real substances are called:

· food products (flour, sugar, fat);

· materials (gypsum, cement);

· types of fabrics (velvet, satin);

· fossil materials, metals (iron, coal, tin);

· chemical elements(uranium, aspirin);

· agricultural crops (oats, potatoes, wheat).

The meaning of materiality in such nouns is expressed only lexically. Real nouns are usually used either only in the singular or only in the plural: honey, tea; perfume, cream. If a material noun, usually used in the singular, takes the plural form, it changes its lexical meaning: cereal – whole or crushed grain; cereals – different types of cereals.

Collective nouns are words that name a collection of homogeneous objects. The meaning of collectiveness in such nouns is usually expressed using special suffixes: -stv (students), -j (beast), -ot (poor). With a broad understanding of collectiveness, similar nouns can also include words that name a collection of objects: tops, small fry, trash, furniture. Such words express collectiveness lexically, but not word-formatively. Distinctive feature All collective nouns are that they do not form plural forms.

The whole variety of grammatical forms in the languages ​​of the world comes down to a countable and easily visible number of ways of expressing grammatical meanings. The main ones are: affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetitions, intonation, function words, word order.

Affixation

The main means of expressing grammatical meanings for many languages ​​of the world (Russian, Belarusian, English, French, German, Turkish, Uzbek, etc.) is affixation. Affixation method consists of attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words, which serve to express grammatical meanings. (Affixes, as is known, are also used for word formation, in this case expressing word-formation meaning). Thus, many grammatical meanings of a Russian verb (person, gender, number, tense) are expressed by endings and suffixes -l-: work-yu, work-eat, work-em, work-eat, work-e, work-ut, work-l, work-l-a, work-l-o, work-l-i.

The meanings of the perfect and imperfect forms of a verb in Russian can be expressed by prefixes, for example: write - write, do - do, read - read, build - build. Endings, suffixes and prefixes are used in Russian to express the grammatical meanings of adjectives: red, red, red - the corresponding gender and nominative case are expressed, beautiful, beautiful, beautiful, beautiful - gender and number, handsome, kind, smart - comparative, the most beautiful, the kindest, the smartest, the most beautiful, the kindest, the smartest - superlative degree. Affixation is also widely used when expressing grammatical meanings in other parts of speech. It is one of the main ways of expressing grammatical meanings in the Russian language.

In the series of affixes, final inflection turns out to be a very important means of expressing grammatical meanings for large quantity languages. For example, endings express the grammatical meanings of verbs in English, German, French, Spanish and many other languages. The wide distribution of final inflection in languages ​​gives grounds to divide the languages ​​of the world into inflected and non-inflected.

The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed by a zero affix, for example, a zero ending in words house, city, forest, garden, student etc. Zero indicator in grammar has the same formal force as positive indicators. In the system of grammatical forms, it is opposed to the presence of formal indicators, thereby acquiring its grammatical meaning in grammatical oppositions. In the examples given, the zero inflection expresses the meanings of the nominative case, singular and masculine in nouns, that is, zero expresses three grammatical meanings at once. The zero grammatical indicator is also present in syntactic constructions. For example, in expressions like Table- furniture, Roses - flowers there is a zero verb connective, which in material terms corresponds to the forms There is And essence: The table is furniture; Roses are flowers.

Alternating sounds at the root

Grammatical meanings can also be expressed alternating sounds at the root, which is sometimes called . Such alternations of sounds are not determined by their phonetic position. At the same time, not every alternation of sounds at the root, not determined by their phonetic position, is grammatically significant. In the Russian language there are a lot of so-called historical, or traditional, alternations that are not stipulated in modern language phonetic position. They are called historical because they occurred in one or another historical period in the development of the language and are not explained by its modern state.

These alternations do not themselves express grammatical meanings, e.g. stump— stump, day— day, sleep - sleep, run - run, bake— you bake, dry - drier etc., but only accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, acting as mandatory by tradition. Such alternations form a special area of ​​linguistics - morphonology, which studies all the phenomena of non-phonetic alternations of sounds. As a grammatically significant way of alternating sounds in the Russian language, they are rarely used, for example, when expressing types of verbs: to freeze- freeze, beg - beg, feed- feed, name - name, avoid - avoid, collect- collect etc.

The role of sound alternations in the transmission of grammatical meanings is more noticeable in languages ​​such as English, German, Arabic, in some African languages, in languages North American Indians. For example, in German, the vowel change in the root (umlaut) is used to form the plural form of many nouns: Mutter - mother, Mütter - mother, Bruder- brother, Brüder - brothers, Tochter - daughter, Töchte r - daughters, Ofen - oven, Öfen - ovens etc.; V English language vowel reversal is also sometimes an indicator of plurality, for example, tooth - tooth, teeth - teeth, mouse - mouse, mice - mice etc.

Accent

One way of expressing grammatical meanings is stress. In Russian, this method can be observed when expressing the grammatical meaning of the perfect and imperfect forms in verbs: cut - cut, ss s to pour - to pour into s wears- take out, cut - cut into s pour out - pour out etc. This method is important in the Russian language when distinguishing between case and number in some nouns: earth - earth, walls s- walls, arms, legs, pipes s- pipes, houses - houses, cities - cities, sails - sails, farms - farms etc. In English, a verb and a noun can differ only in the place of stress in the word, for example: progress- progress, prógress - progress, impórt - import, ímport - import etc. In different languages, the grammatical method of stress plays a different role, which depends on the type and type of stress in the language. In languages ​​with a fixed single-place stress, oppositions such as the Russian pairs of words noted above are impossible. Musical stress can always serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings.

Suppletivism

In some cases, to express grammatical meanings it is necessary to use word forms derived from other roots. Such an expression of grammatical meanings using other roots is called suppletivism(from Latin suppleo, suppletum - to replenish, supplement), and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, the suppletive way of expressing grammatical meanings is considered unproductive. For example, the grammatical meaning of the indirect cases of personal pronouns (I - me, you - you, he- them, we- us), plural meaning of some nouns (child - children, person - people), grammatical meaning of the perfect form of a number of verbs (take - take, speak - say, look - find), meaning comparative degree individual adjectives (good is better, bad is worse).

Sometimes a serious problem is distinguishing suppletivism from internal inflection, since in both cases the grammatical meaning is expressed by a change in the phonemic composition of the root morpheme. And although it is believed that with suppletivism the change covers the entire root, and with internal inflection - only part of the root, in practice there are many intermediate cases that require the determination of some minimum root that remains unchanged. A.A. Reformatsky considered, for example, such forms as suppletive: piglet - piglets, kid- kids, Armenian - Armenians, nobleman - nobles, owner - owners, friend- friends, brother - brothers, link- links etc., where not the entire root undergoes changes. Supplementism is often viewed as an exceptional and archaic phenomenon, since expressing grammatical meanings using a separate root overcomplicates the language system.

Replays

Replays, or reduplication(from Latin reduplica-tio - doubling), consist of a complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, which is associated with the expression of grammatical meaning. Repetitions can be carried out without changing the sound composition of the word or with a partial change in it. In a number of languages, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in Chinese, Malay, Korean, Armenian and other languages: Chinese zhen - man, zhen-zhen - people, sin - star, sin-sin - stars; Malay orang - person, orang-orang— People; Korean saram— man, saram-saram - each of the people; Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - many regiments.

In Russian, repetitions are used as a means of enhancing the intensity of an action or sign, as well as the duration and repetition of the action: yes, yes, no, no, barely, a little, kind, kind, big, big, thought, thought, high, high, you walk, you walk, you ask, you ask. B.N. Golovin suggests that in the Russian language there is a special grammatical meaning of intensification, which is expressed by repeating the word denoting the attribute being intensified. In the Russian language there are many onomatopoeic repetitions like peek-a-boo, meow-meow, drip-drip, oink-oink and emotionally charged formations such as tyap-blunder, tara-bar, shura-mur, figli-migli, gogol-mogol, shurum-burum, which A.A. Reformatsky called “wonderful” words with the meaning of “indefinite totality.” It is possible that formations of the latter type are imitations of Turkic repetitions expressing the meanings of collective nouns. For example, in the Kazakh language veins Means horse, A zhylky-mylky - horses and other livestock(horse), fist - fist, A fist-mulak- fist etc.

Intonation

A means of expressing grammatical meanings can be intonation. In some languages, for example, Chinese, Vietnamese, intonation is used to distinguish both the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. In the Russian language, intonation is also, in some cases, one of the means of expressing grammatical meanings in a word. For example, a verb in the form of an infinitive can appear in the imperative mood, being pronounced with the intonation of a command, an order, an inducement to action: stand up! sit down! lie down! stand! be silent! run! close! etc.

In Russian, intonation as a means of expressing grammatical meanings is widely used in a sentence. The type of intonation differs between narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences; with the help of pauses within a sentence, they show the grouping of sentence members, highlight introductory words and expressions, and can distinguish between simple and complex sentences.

Function words

Grammatical meanings can be expressed both inside a word - these are affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetitions and intonation, and outside it - these are intonation, methods of function words and word order. The first row of methods is called synthetic(from the Greek syn-thetikos - based on synthesis, unifying; synthesis - connection, combination, composition), the second - analytical(from the Greek analytikos - based on analysis, separating; analysis - decomposition, dismemberment).

At synthetic Typically, lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed by the form of the same word. Yes, in a word hand lexical meaning is expressed by the stem hand-, and the grammatical meanings of the nominative case, singular, female- inflection -A. At analytical type, lexical and grammatical meanings receive separate expression. The lexical meaning is expressed by a word, and the functions of expressing grammatical meanings are taken over by auxiliary linguistic means - function words: auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles. For example, in Russian, the meaning of the future tense of imperfective verbs is expressed analytically: the lexical meaning of verbs is expressed by the infinitive form, and the grammatical meanings of number, person and tense by the conjugated form of the verb be.

Mixed, or hybrid, the type of expression of grammatical meanings combines the features of synthetic and analytical types. Thus, in the Russian language the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by the preposition (by car, in a house, in the forest, about the ground, about an accident etc.).

Many languages ​​combine both types of expression of grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical, but one of the types always prevails. The predominantly synthetic languages ​​include Latin, Sanskrit, Russian, Lithuanian, German and other languages. In languages ​​of predominantly analytical structure - English, French, Spanish, Danish, Modern Greek, Bulgarian and others - the analytical type of expression of grammatical meanings predominates, the main way of which is function words.

Among function words, the function of expressing grammatical meanings in Indo-European languages ​​is often performed by the article. In English the article the is an indicator of a noun, it distinguishes it from a verb and other parts of speech, for example: the act- business, to act- act, thecopy— copy, to copy - copy etc. In German, the article indicates the gender and number of nouns.

Word order

In languages ​​in which there are no inflections (or they are rarely used) and the word usually retains the same form, order words are a very important way of expressing grammatical meanings. For example, in English, a sentence has a very fixed word order, in which the subject is in the first place, the predicate in the second, the object in the third, the adverbial in the fourth, that is, the place in which the word stands in the statement turns out to be a factor expressing its grammatical meaning. Offers the man killed a tiger- man killed a tiger And the tiger killed the man- tiger killed a man get the opposite meaning by changing the places of subject and object. Word order also plays an important grammatical role in languages ​​such as Chinese, French, and Bulgarian.

The Russian language differs from other languages ​​in its relatively free word order. But in some cases, word order becomes the only means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. Yes, in sentences Mother loves daughter And Daughter loves mother, Being determines consciousness And Consciousness determines being, A tram hit a car And A car hit a tram the meaning of the nominative case is created by placing the noun in first place; in the first place the noun plays the role of the subject, in the last place - the object.

In each language and at each stage of its development, the number of grammatical methods used and their regularity are different: some are predominant, used more often than others, others may be completely absent.

According to its grammatical structure, the Russian language is an inflectional language with elements of analyticism. Therefore, most grammatical meanings are expressed in it synthetic way, i.e. using means (grammatical indicators), located in the word itself. Such means include the following:

1. Endings . The endings are used to express:

· the meaning of number and case of nouns;

· gender, number and case of adjectives, participles and pronouns;

· the meaning of the case of numerals;

· meaning of person, number and gender of verbs.

One ending can express one grammatical meaning, or two, or three grammatical meanings.

2. Shaping affixes . Suffixes are involved in the formation:

· past tense forms of the verb;

· forms of participles and gerunds;

· comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs.

By postfixation the following are formed:

· imperative forms 2 l. verb;

· forms of the passive voice of the verb.

The expression of some grammatical meanings may involve word-forming and stem-forming affixes : nouns use suffixes to form singular forms ( hare- onok– bunny- at-A) and plural ( husband - husband-j -A), prefixes form perfective verbs (do – With -do, write - on-write)

3. Accent as a grammatical device it usually appears together with affixes. Stress rarely expresses grammatical meanings on its own. With the help of stress they distinguish, for example:

· unit forms Part gen. n. and many others h. them. n. nouns ( st e us – walls y );

· correlative verbs ( size e cut - cut A there).

4. Phoneme alternation , like stress, is usually an additional means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. It most often accompanies affixation.

In the morphology of the Russian language, cases of expressing grammatical meanings occupy a significant place analytical way, that is, with the help of means outside the word itself. Such means include

5. Functional parts of speech (prepositions, particles).Prepositions are widely used to express case meanings of nouns, numerals and pronouns. In this case, they usually appear together with endings (materially expressed and zero) or without them.

6. The analytical method includes all cases of expressing grammatical meanings using syntactic means , i.e. by means of context, surrounding words. For example, control expresses the case meanings of unchangeable nouns.

7. Some words express separate grammatical meanings suppletive way, i.e. using forms having different roots ( Human – people-And).

8. Intonation . The main area of ​​application of intonation for expressing grammatical meanings is syntax.

Word form and word form

The word is used in a connected text in one of its word forms. For example, in the sentence On the shore of desert waves he stood, full of great thoughts(A. Pushkin) words shore, deserted, wave, stand, he, great, full are represented by one of the word forms available for these words.

A word form is a morphological unit that represents one of the possible forms of a specific word (spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring, spring, spring, spring, spring, about spring – word forms of the word spring, formed by changing this word in cases and numbers by adding formative morphemes - endings - to the root -a, -s, -e and so on.). Variable words have several word forms (depending on the characteristics of declension or conjugation), and unchangeable words have one.

A word form as a unit of a morphological system has a grammatical (morphological) meaning, form and at the same time has a lexical meaning inherent in a given word: if the word spring denotes a certain time of year, then each of the word forms of this word has the same meaning.

However, for some words, derived lexical meanings do not appear in all word forms of a given word, but are assigned only to some of them. For example, all word forms of the word forest in its direct basic meaning it retains this meaning ("a large space covered with growing trees"), but the word has several figurative meanings that are assigned only to some forms of the word: forest in the meaning of “building material” it has no plural forms. numbers (Timber was brought to the construction site) A forest in the meaning of “fastening structure” is used only in the plural. number (Scaffolding for workers was erected around the building under construction). Word table in the meaning “type of furniture” retains this meaning in all 12 word forms (i.e. in all case forms singular and plural), and in the meaning “food” ( This sanatorium has a good table) used only in unit forms. numbers (6 word forms).

When describing the morphological features of words, two terms are used: word form and (grammatical) form of the word. These terms express two different concepts and therefore should not be confused. The word form, as already noted, is the specific implementation of a word in the text, reflecting its lexical meaning and grammatical meanings and forms; the grammatical form of a word is an indication only of particular specific grammatical categories of the word. For example, words windowsill And cup holder have the same structure and the same grammatical meanings and forms (noun, plural, singular, noun), i.e. These are the same forms of words, but at the same time they are different word forms, since they are word forms of different words.

The form of a word can be represented by one word form: I'll tell you, Tell, or a combination of two word forms: the form of a significant word and a function word - an auxiliary verb be or formative particle: I'll speak, would say. The form of a word represented by one word form is called synthetic. The vast majority of forms are synthetic different parts speech. The form of a word represented by a combination of the forms of the significant and functional words is called analytical. Analytical forms include future tense forms of imperfective verbs ( I'll speak, you will talk, will speak, will talk...); so-called forms of joint action ( we will(those) speak, Let's(those) let's say, Let's(those) speak) and all forms subjunctive mood (would say, I would say, would say, would talk).

Morphological paradigm

The word forms of a changing word in their totality form a strictly organized system - a paradigm for the inflection of a given word.

In morphology, the term “paradigm” has two meanings:

1) a system of word forms that form one lexeme (word declension paradigm sky etc., verb conjugation paradigm read and so on.);

2) pattern, inflection scheme (paradigm of the 1st declension of nouns, paradigm of the 2nd verb conjugation, paradigm of changing adjectives by degrees of comparison, etc.).

There are three types of paradigms: complete, incomplete and redundant. A variation of the complete one is the crossing paradigm.

A complete paradigm is a paradigm that has a complete set of forms of inflection for one or another category characteristic of a given part of speech. The complete paradigm reflects regular and frequent inflections of a particular part of speech and is the norm of the inflectional system of a word of a certain part of speech.

The complete paradigm of declension of nouns consists of 12 word forms (declension by cases in singular and plural), the complete paradigm of perfective verbs consists of 10 word forms (conjugation by persons and numbers in the future tense and by genders and numbers in the past), complete the paradigm of imperfective verbs has 16 word forms (conjugation in the present tense by persons and numbers; in the future tense by persons and numbers; in the past tense by genders and numbers), etc.

A crossing paradigm is a paradigm when two different words, when inflected or conjugated, have partially common paradigms (several identical word forms for two different words). Paradigms seem to merge or intersect. This phenomenon is widespread in the field of adjectives, pronouns, participles in the declension of m. and cf. R.; and the verb system, such paradigms are rare.

Adjectives of all categories with the declension of the forms M. and Wed. genders regularly have intersecting paradigms that coincide in all cases except nominative and accusative (if V. = I.). Paradigms are similar for ordinal numbers, participles, adjective pronouns (and words he, it).

For example, verbs lay And lay, as well as their derivatives (to spread, to spread, to spread, to spread etc.) have a crossing paradigm in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person present (or future simple) tense.

But in the past tense, each verb has its own paradigm of gender and number.

An incomplete paradigm is an incomplete set of forms of inflection of a specific word in a particular category. The incompleteness of a set of forms is established by comparison with the complete paradigm of the same inflection. For example, the complete paradigm of change in cases and numbers of nouns is equal to 12 members. Word dream has an incomplete declension paradigm - there is no gender form. p.m. h., word honey has an incomplete declension paradigm, since it lacks plural case forms. h.; words shchetz, drovets have only one case form - gender. p.m. h. In addition, the words honey, cream, firewood, cabbage soup They also have incomplete number paradigms - they do not change according to numbers.

A redundant paradigm is a paradigm that contains large quantity forms than a complete paradigm of inflection for one category or another. For example, the word Human has a redundant number paradigm, since when forming plural forms, in addition to the form People, in indirect cases in combination with numerals has the plural form of the word Human: genus. P. - five people date P. - five people TV P. - five people although the case paradigm in the plural is incomplete, there is no form for it, p. – people. The number-word paradigm year is also redundant: year - years - years - summers(form named after summer is defined as obsolete, but the form is gen. p. in combination with numerals turns out to be widely used: five years; shape type five years in use). Verbs like drip, move, meow and some others, which, when conjugated along with the forms meow, meow etc., moving, moving and etc., dripping, dripping etc. have forms meows, meows; you move, moves; drip, drip.

When establishing the nature of a paradigm, one should compare the paradigm as an inflectional norm of a word of a given part of speech with the paradigm of a specific word form for a specific category. A comparison can show that the same paradigm can be complete in one category, incomplete in another, and redundant in a third. For example, the word drip has a complete paradigm of the genus (channel, dripped, dripped) and redundant paradigm in number and person (drop And drip, drip And drips, drips And you're dripping and etc.); verb win has an incomplete paradigm for person (no 1st person, singular) and complete paradigms for number and gender.

At the head of every complete paradigm is original form, i.e., a representing word form that has a denomination function ( dictionary form). In the verb paradigm, the initial form is the infinitive, in the noun and adjective paradigms - the im. n. At the same time, in the noun paradigm, the form named is taken as the initial form. p.un. h., and in the adjective paradigm - the form im. p.un. h. husband R.

Formally expressed grammatical meanings that are in opposition relations constitute a grammatical category. A grammatical category is a two-sided unit of the morphological system of a language, which has a content plan (it has its own semantics) and an expression plan (it has its own external indicators, the forms by which this semantics is expressed).

WITH semantic point of view, a grammatical category is a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings. Thus, the general meaning of the category of number of adjectives consists of two particular meanings - singular and plural; the general semantics of the case of nouns includes the particular meanings of 6 cases.

Particular grammatical meanings, in turn, can be compound, divisible. For example, the meaning of the genitive case consists of several meanings: belonging meaning, part meaning, subject meaning, etc. Such grammatical meanings can be called elementary. They are indivisible.

WITH formal point of view, a grammatical category is a set of grammatical forms that serve to express private grammatical meanings.

Particular grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical forms form oppositions, which constitute the essence of the grammatical category.

Grammatical forms that combine several grammatical meanings enter into opposition according to several criteria. Grammatical meanings are most clearly manifested in forms that are contrasted on only one basis.

Grammatical categories differ from each other not only in the nature of oppositions, but also in the number of opposed members. For example. The grammatical category of number of nouns consists of 2 members and forms only one opposition; the grammatical category of verb tense consists of 3 and forms 3 oppositions. The most big number members (6) in the Russian language has a case category (15 oppositions).

When analyzing grammatical categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if some plan is missing, then it cannot be considered this phenomenon category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is not a category, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of conjugations I-II do not serve to express any semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.

Grammatical categories are morphological (classificatory and inflectional) and syntactic. Depending on whether the members (components) of a morphological category can be represented by forms of the same word or whether they are represented only by forms of different words, morphological categories are divided into two groups: non-inflectional And inflectional.

Non-inflectionals are categories whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word. They find their expression in the contrast of words according to their grammatical properties. On this basis, the entire vocabulary of a language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore, such categories are also called classification categories). Classification is, for example, the category of gender and the category of animation ~ inanimateness of nouns.

Inflectional categories are categories whose members can be represented by forms of the same word. They are expressed in the opposition of different word forms of one word. For example, the category of person of a verb is inflectional, since to detect it it is enough to compare different shapes the same verb.

Depending on what connections and relationships are reflected in categorical values, morphological categories are divided into categories, identified syntagmatically(in syntactic compatibility) and non-syntagmatic. Syntagmatic identification is understood as the identification of morphological categories in such connections of words in which the form of one word indicates its direct dependence on the form of another word (or on the word as a whole) or itself determines the form of another word: red tent(word form red subordinated to word form tent and at the same time predetermined by it); read a book(word form book subordinate to the word read); the sound of wheels(word form wheels subordinate to the word knock).

TO syntagmatically detectable The following morphological categories include:

1) categories of gender, number and case of adjectives, expressing the ability of an adjective to act as an agreed definition of a noun, as well as categories of gender and number of a verb, expressing the ability of the predicate-verb to be coordinated in gender and number with the subject-noun;

2) the category of gender of nouns, expressing the ability of nouns to have a gender-consistent adjective attribute, as well as to be coordinated in gender with a predicate-verb in the forms of the past tense and the subjunctive mood;

All these categories are identified on the basis of syntactic connections. The category of voice refers to syntagmatically identified ones, however, this identification has a special character: it involves not unidirectional or (if coordinated) mutually directed syntactic connections, but entire syntactic constructions.

TO non-syntagmatically detectable include morphological categories, the meanings of which reflect various semantic abstractions abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extra-linguistic reality, such as quantitative relations of objects, the degree of manifestation of a characteristic, the limitation or unlimitedness of an action by a limit, the temporal relevance of an action, its reality or unreality. These include the category of number of the noun, the category of degree of comparison of the adjective and adverb, the categories of aspect, tense and mood of the verb. The identification of all these categories is characterized by independence from the subordinating connections of words.

Both syntagmatically and nonsyntagmatically identified categories can be both inflectional (for example, case and number of a noun, tense and mood of a verb) and non-inflectional (for example, gender of a noun, aspect of a verb).

Morphological categories belong to parts of speech and largely determine their specificity. In the Russian language, nouns and adjectives have the category of gender, number and case, each of which is manifested differently in the system of nouns and adjectives. Numerals in general have only the category of case. Pronouns have the categories of gender, number and case, which characterize different categories of this part of speech differently. A verb has the categories of voice, mood, number, tense, person, gender. Degrees of comparison are characteristic of adjectives, adverbs, and words of the state category.

Related information.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY named after. I. KANTA

FACULTY OF LINGUISTICS AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT OF THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

WAYS OF EXPRESSING GRAMMATIC MEANINGS

Work completed:

student of FLiMK, 1st year, group 2AP

A. A. Slobodskikh

Kaliningrad

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….3

CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………..4

CHAPTER 2……………………………………………………..5

CHAPTER 3……………………………………………………..9

CHAPTER 4……………………………………………………..12

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………...13

References……………………………………………………………..14

Appendix 1……………………………………………………………...15

INTRODUCTION

Grammar [ Annex 1] defines the type of language, being its most stable part. If phonetics and vocabulary occupy a peripheral position in the structure of the language, then grammar occupies a central position. But at the same time, it is always indirect, since its connection with reality is carried out only through vocabulary. Also, grammar is unthinkable without phonetics, since what is not expressed phonetically is absent in grammar.

Thus, we can say that every grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: internal - the grammatical meaning, and external - the grammatical way of expression.

As a science, grammar includes two parts - morphology [ Annex 1] and syntax. The object of study in morphology is individual words and their grammatical properties.

Each significant word in turn has two meanings - lexical and grammatical. If there can be only one lexical meaning, then a word can have several grammatical meanings, and they find their morphological and syntactic expression in the language.

In the field of morphology, grammatical meaning is general values words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general, opposed to each other within grammatical categories [ Annex 1] (for example, the meaning of a particular time, person, number or gender).

Various ways of expressing grammatical meanings in language will be discussed in this work.

Concept of grammatical meaning .

Grammatical meaning is a generalized abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words or word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in the language.

As already mentioned, each significant word has a lexical and grammatical meaning. The carrier of lexical meaning is the stem of the word. The grammatical acts as an addition to the lexical and expresses relations. For example, the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action, or the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time. .

The grammatical meaning is not determined lexical meaning words and, unlike lexical, characteristic of a particular word, does not focus on one word. It is typical for many words in the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical meanings, changing its grammatical form, but maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word table has a number of forms - table , table , tables, - which express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

The grammatical meaning of a certain word in one form or another is expressed in a certain grammatical way. [ Annex 1]. There are a limited number of these methods used in languages ​​- affixation, internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, stress and intonation, word order, function words. The grammar of any language can only be expressed in these ways. Some languages ​​(for example, Russian, English) use all of the above methods, while others (for example, French, Chinese) use only some. In addition, it should be noted that in different languages ​​these methods are combined with different grammatical meanings, which creates a new form each time.

Grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meanings are easily quantifiable and observable. There are three main methods of expression: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

Synthetic ways of expressing meanings

The synthetic method consists in expressing the meaning in the word itself and includes affixation, alternation and internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, addition and method of stress.

Affixation method

The method of affixation is to attach various affixes to the roots or stems of words [ Annex 1], serving to express grammatical meanings.

For example: House House A- house at, do - With do, write - n write, be late - late yva t.

Affixes can be divided into prefixes, which come before the root, and postfixes, which come after the root. There are languages ​​that do not use prefixes (for example, Turkic), but express grammar only with postfixes, and vice versa - languages ​​that do not recognize postfixes (for example, the Swahili language). The Indo-European group of languages, in particular Russian, use both prefixes and postfixes, which in turn are divided into suffixes and inflections. Suffixes are postfixes with a derivational meaning, and inflections are postfixes with a relational meaning.

There are also other types of affixes, although suffixes and prefixes are most common in the languages ​​of the world:

1) Interfixes– service morphemes [ Annex 1], used to connect roots in complex words. For example, connecting vowels in Russian: stars- O-fall, snow- O-move .

2) Confixes– combinations of two affixes – prefix and postfix – that act together. For example, German verbs: loben- “to praise” and ge - lob - t– “praised”, where –ge и – t surround the root, forming the word together.

3) Infixes- affixes inserted inside the root or stem. For example, Latin: ru - m - p - o- “I’m breaking” with r ū p -ī - "I've broken". “Inserted” nasal consonant like [m].

4) Transfixes- affixes that break a root consisting of only consonants. This phenomenon is characteristic of Semitic languages. For example, Hebrew GNōB- “to steal” GANAB– “stole”, where is the root HDD means the idea of ​​"stealing", and the transfix vowels mean word forms: the infinitive and the past tense form.

Also plays an important role in many languages zero affix – the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. For example, for the word horn the zero affix is ​​an indicator of the nominative case, singular, since in all other cases of the singular and plural there are affixes - rog-a, rog-u, rog-a, rog-ov.

Method of alternation and internal inflection

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Alternations of sounds - mutual replacement in the same places and in the same morphemes - can be:

1) Phonetic. The change in sound is determined by position, and variations of one phoneme alternate. For example, the alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian: water[water] – water[vada], or voiced and voiceless consonants: Friend[friend] – friend[friend].

2) Non-phonetic. Changes in sound do not depend on position; different phonemes alternate. For example, [friend-]-[friend׳-]-[friend-] in the words friend - friends - friendly .

Among non-phonetic alternations, in turn, they distinguish:

a) Morphological. Alternation is not determined by phonetic position, but also does not express grammatical meaning, but only accompanies the formation of grammatical forms. For example, forehead - forehead, stump - stump– the phenomenon of “fluent vowel”. Alternation [k - h], [g - g], [x - w] – ne To y - ne h eat, come on G y-be and oh, su X oh – su w e. Alternating combinations of consonants with one consonant: [sk - sch], [st - sch], [zg - zh], [zzh - zh] – bad sk awn - flat sch damn about st oh - easy sch writing, recording building at - by zzh e.

b) Grammatical. Alternation does not depend on phonetic position, and independent phonemes alternate with each other, with zero, or one phoneme with two. .That's what it is internal inflection .

Ablaut – most ancient look internal inflection, characterized by a radical change in the vowel during the formation of the main forms of the verb. For example, an English verb:

In this case, the alternation of the vowel at the root of the word is clearly visible.

Umlaut – a type of internal inflection that emerged independently in various languages ​​during the medieval period. Umlaut is characterized by a change in vowels at the root when forming the plural form. For example, in English:

F oo t – f ee t

"leg legs"

Reduplications

Reduplication (repeat) consists in the complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with its partial change.

Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings:

Synthetic (from Greek - “connection”) - assumes the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, word-forming and inflectional) within one word: the grammatical meaning is expressed within the word;

Analytical (from Greek - “decomposition, dismemberment1”) - involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word, which is manifested in the morphological invariability of the word and the use of auxiliary elements that, in combination with full-nominal lexical units, form complex (analytical) grammatical forms (in Russian read - complex form of the future tense of the verb, more important - complex form of the comparative degree);

Mixed, or hybrid - combines the characteristics of synthetic and analytical types (in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition).

Depending on whether synthetic or analytical methods expressions of grammatical meanings predominate in the language; there are two main morphological types of languages:

Synthetic - in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates (English, Chinese);

Analytical - in which the tendency towards analyticity prevails.

Varieties of synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings:

Affixation (using different types of affixes);

Reduplication (from Late Latin reduplicatio - “doubling”) - expression of grammatical meaning by complete or partial repetition of the stem (Latin mordeo “bite” - momordi “I bitten”);

Suppletivism (from Latin suppleo - “I replenish, replenish”) is the combination of words of different roots into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (in Indo-European languages ​​when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives with the meaning “good / bad” and forms of pronouns: English good - better , I - me, German gut - besser, ich - mich, Russian bad - worse, I - me);

Stress and differences in tone - whether a word belongs to one or another part of speech is determined by the place of stress (in English, progress is the verb “to develop”, progress is the noun “development”; in line, stress can distinguish between the forms of the number of nouns and the type of verb:

heads - heads, pour - pour).

Affixation types:

Inflectivity;

Agglutination.

Inflection(from Latin flexio "bending") - inflectional affixation or inflection through inflection, which can convey several grammatical meanings at the same time:

With the help of endings, including zero ones (domO - at home, shelO - walked);

With the help of internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (English foot - feet "leg - legs"; mouse - mice "mouse - mice"). Varieties of internal inflection (according to J. Grimm):

Ablaut (German Ablaut "alternation") - historical alternations of vowels in roots, expressing inflectional or word-formative meanings (English sing "sing" - sang "sang"; German singen "sing" - sang "sang");

¦ umlaut (German Umlaut - “revocalization”) - a change in the vowels (shifting them forward) of the root under the influence of the vowels of the suffix or ending, performing a grammatical function (German Vater “father” - Vnter “fathers”).

Agglutination(from Latin agglutinare - “to stick”) - when each grammatical meaning of a word is expressed by a separate standard affix, and each affix has one function; types of agglutination:

With the help of suffixes expressing grammatical meanings (in Russian, past tense forms are formed using the formative suffix -l-: read-l-0, preach-l-a);

Prefixes (in Latvian, the prefix )a - serves as an indicator of the obligatory mood of the verb);

Confixes (confixation) - complex intermittent morphemes of the encircling type (in German, the formation of the participles gefunden, gemachf);

Infixes (Latin - vici-vinco, rupi-rumpo);

Transfixes - the use of affixes, which, breaking the consonantal root, serve as a “layer” of vowels among consonants (in Arabic, the general idea of ​​“scripture” is expressed by the consonantal stem ktb, and the past tense form of the active voice is formed using the transfix a-a-a - kataba " wrote", and the form of the passive zapog is through the transfix u-i-a - kutiba "he wrote").

Varieties of analytical method:

The use of function words - prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, particles, articles and postpositions;

Through intonation, which performs the following functions:

¦ forms a statement and reveals its meaning;

¦ distinguishes between different communicative types of sentences (question, incentive, narration);

¦ identifies parts of a statement according to their semantic importance, formalizes the syntactic structure as a single whole and at the same time divides it into separate segments;

Through the use of word order - a specific arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase. Word order distinguishes the syntactic functions of words in a sentence and the communicative types of the sentences themselves (along with intonation). There are languages ​​in which a fixed order of components expresses certain syntactic relationships.

38. Parts of speech - basic lexical and grammatical classes according to which

the words of the language are distributed. These sets of words have some common grammatical features. Depending on the structure of the language and the theoretical positions of researchers, from 2 to 15 parts of speech are distinguished.

Signs, on the basis of which the lexicon units are distributed into large grammatical classes:

Semantic criterion - the general categorical grammatical meaning of words;

Syntactic criterion is a common, primary syntactic function, i.e. the ability to act in the position of a certain member of a sentence and be combined with certain classes of words), on the basis of which in most languages ​​of the world nouns and verbs are distinguished primarily (according to I.I. Meshchaninov);

Morphological criterion (features of formation and composition of grammatical categories, i.e., the system of its morphological categories and morphological categories), according to which words are divided into inflectible (declined and conjugated), consisting of a main part and a formal one, and unchangeable (F.F. Fortunatov);

Derivational criterion - features of word formation, i.e. a set of word-formation models and word-formation means, as well as the ability to identify the bases for replenishing the vocabulary of other parts of speech;

Phonological - features of the phonemic and prosodic structure of words of different classes.

When dividing the entire set of lexical units on the basis of a syntactic criterion in combination with a semantic criterion, the bulk of lexical units are divided:

For significant words (full-valued, full-valued, autosemantic) - they can function as members of a sentence; a separate significant word can be the minimum of a sentence (statement);

Functional words (incomplete, incomplete, synsemantic, formal) cannot function as members of a sentence;

Interjections are isolated on the basis that they are sufficient in themselves to formulate a statement, and do not enter into syntactic connections with other words in a given speech formation.

Types of significant words:

Denominatives - have the most clearly expressed part-speech features: their characteristics are based simultaneously on both syntactic and associated semantic features;

Pronouns (pronominal-demonstrative, deictic);

Numerals (numerical, numeral).

In the structure of the sentence, first of all, the positions of actants (subject participants in affairs, events, situations) and the positions of predicates (features) are distinguished.

Within the framework of one objective situation, actants act as carriers of signs that characterize their attitude to the situation as a whole and their attitude to each other.

Actant classification of nominal words:

Actant (non-predicate, non-attribute, subject) - nouns that are characterized by such primary actant (syntactic) functions as subject and object. The use of a noun as a function of circumstance, definition or

the predicate is secondary for him;

Predicate (feature) - a verb for which the predicate function is primary (attribution of some currently relevant attribute to an object put forward as a subject). Its functioning in any other position (subject, object, adverbial, attribute) is secondary for it. Adjectives and adverbs, as well as the verb, belong to characteristic words. Adjectives that express the characteristics of objects as if outside of time (i.e., non-actualized predicates) are specialized for use in the function of definition, and adverbs, the meanings of which are characteristics of other characteristics, are specialized in the function of circumstances. An adverb is syntactically related to a verb, and

adjective - with a noun. This classification system does not distinguish classes of pronouns and numerals.

Grammemes (formal indicator) of the main parts of speech:

Noun - grammeme of objectivity (substantiality): substantive word-classifying grammemes of gender or nominal class; inflectional grammes of case, number, animation - inanimateness, certainty - uncertainty, alienable - inalienable belonging;

Verbs - procedural grammeme™ (verbal): predicative verbal grammemes of tense, aspect, mood, voice, version, gender, interrogative, negation, as well as concordant grammemes of person, number, gender; grammes of transitivity - intransitivity, dynamism - staticity, ultimacy - infinity, modes of action (initiativeness, repetition, one-act, unidirectionality - non-unidirectionality of movement, cumulativeness, distributivity);

Adjective - grammeme of attribute (adjectivity): opposition of full and short forms, categories of degrees of comparison and categories of intensity, as well as concordant grammes of number, gender and case;

Adverbs - adverbial grammeme (adverbial™): grammemes of the category of degrees of comparison and the category of intensity.

Transitivity of parts of speech- a phenomenon that can be traced between significant and auxiliary parts of speech, the volume of which is largely replenished by significant words. The phenomenon of transitivity is also observed between significant parts of speech due to conversion - a morphological-syntactic method

fishing The essence of this process:

From a phonetic point of view, a new word is not formed;

As a result of its transition from one part of speech to another, the word acquires new structural and grammatical properties, while losing a number of its grammatical features.

37 Grammatical category- a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning (for example, nouns in singular and plural form are opposed to each other and form the grammatical category of number). Members of one grammatical category are united by a common grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of number) and differ in private meanings (for example, the meaning of singularity - plurality). Grammatical categories provide a systematic organization of the morphological component of a given language.

At the heart of the grammatical category As a specially organized system of linguistic elements, opposition lies. If one of the members of the opposition is actually absent, then the second one is also absent (in meaning and content), even if it is formally represented in the word (material nouns have a singular form, but these words do not have a singular meaning, since they actually do not and cannot have a plural form).

Types of oppositions:

Private opposition is a contrast between two members in which one member (strong, marked) has a pronounced semantic feature, and the second (weak, unmarked) is characterized by its absence, which leads to the fact that the weak member can act as a strong one

Transposition is the figurative use of a grammatical form, when one of the forms of a grammatical category can act in the meaning of another form of the same paradigmatic series (for example, present, time can be used in the context of the past (historical present), which makes the story more lively).

Types of grammatical categories.

By the number of members they unite (grammatical forms):

Binary (binary) - combines two grammatical forms that are opposed to each other;

Three-membered (trinary) - combines three members;

Polynomial grammatical categories are a system of more than three members opposed to each other.

By the nature of grammatical forms:

Inflectional (formative) - represented by forms of the same word;

Non-inflectional grammatical categories are classifying; they combine grammatical forms that are not forms of the same word, but independent lexical units that do not change, but are distributed among the forms of a given category; members of a non-inflectional category or may be connected by word-formation relations.

In relation to extra-linguistic reality and. hence the functions:

Interpretive, or meaningful grammatical categories interpret certain phenomena and relationships in extralinguistic reality;

Relational, or formal grammatical categories serve only as a means of expressing syntactic connections of linguistic units.

A morphological category, a closed system with a limited number of elements, is not just a system of oppositions of elementary grammatical meanings, but a system of oppositions of grammes as two-sided entities, each with its own

the signified and its signifier (or a standard set of signifiers). The number of elements determines the number of morphological oppositions and the set of differential semantic features of grammemes (the grammatical category of case in Russian includes 6 grammemes, the number of oppositions between them reaches 16);

Syntactic grammatical categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of language (the category of predicativity or the category of sentence members), but they can also be expressed by units belonging to other language levels (the word

and its shape). This division is typical mainly for languages ​​of the inflectional type; in languages ​​of the agglutinative type, the boundaries between morphological and syntactic categories are erased.

45. Classification of languages- determining the place of each language among the languages ​​of the world; distribution of the world's languages ​​into groups based on certain characteristics in accordance with the principles underlying the study.

Issues of classifying the diversity of languages ​​of the world, distributing them according to certain taxonymic (from the Greek taxis - arrangement in order, nomos - law) headings began to be actively developed at the beginning of the 19th century. From the second half of the 20th century. Interest in the possibilities of other classifications of the world's languages ​​increased, and the areal and functional classifications of languages ​​gained recognition. Each classification explains linguistic similarity from its general theoretical positions and subdivides languages ​​accordingly. The most developed and recognized are two classifications - genealogical and typological (or morphological).

Genealogical (genetic) classification:

Based on the concept of linguistic kinship;

The goal is to determine the place of a particular language in the circle of related languages, to establish its genetic connections;

The main method is comparative-historical;

The degree of stability of the classification is absolutely stable (since each language initially belongs to one or another family, group of languages ​​and cannot change the nature of this belonging).

Typological classification (originally known as morphological):

Based on the concept of similarity (formal and/or semantic) and, accordingly, differences between languages; is based on the peculiarities of the structure of languages ​​(on the characteristics of the morphological structure of a word, methods of combining morphemes, the role of inflections and affixes in the formation of grammatical forms of a word and in conveying the grammatical meaning of a word);

The goal is to group languages ​​into large classes based on the similarity of their grammatical structure (the principles of its organization), to determine the place of a particular language, taking into account the formal organization of its linguistic structure;

The main method is comparative;

The degree of stability of the classification is relative and historically changeable (since each language is constantly developing, its structure and the very theoretical understanding of this structure change).

Geographical (areal) classification(possible within one

language in relation to its dialects):

Associated with the place of distribution (initial or later) of a particular language (or dialect);

The goal is to determine the area of ​​the language (or dialect) taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features;

The main method is linguogeographical;

The degree of stability of the classification is more or less stable depending on the characteristics underlying it.

Functional classification comes from the sphere of language functioning; is based on the study of acts of speech and types of linguistic communication and divides languages:

In natural ones, which are a means of communication (oral and written languages);

Artificial, i.e. not reproducing the forms of natural languages;

Graphic, used in the field of science and technology (programming languages, information, logical, etc.).

Cultural-historical classification examines languages ​​from the point of view of their relationship to cultural history; takes into account the historical sequence of cultural development; highlights:

Unliterate;

Written;

Literary languages ​​of nationality and nation;

Interethnic communication.

Based on the prevalence of the language and the number of people speaking it, they are divided into:

Languages ​​that are common among a narrow circle of speakers (tribal languages ​​of Africa, Polynesia; “one-aul” languages ​​of Dagestan);

Languages ​​spoken by individual nationalities (Dungan - in Kyrgyzstan);

Languages ​​spoken by the entire nation (Czech, Bulgarian);

Languages ​​that are used by several nations, the so-called interethnic (French - in France, Belgium, Switzerland; Russian, serving the peoples of Russia);

Languages ​​that function as international languages ​​(English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, Russian - which is also an international language).

According to the degree of activity of the tongue, they are distinguished:

Living are actively functioning languages;

Dead (Latin, Gaulish, Gothic) - preserved only in written monuments, in place names or in the form of borrowings in other languages, or disappeared without a trace; some dead languages ​​are still used today (Latin is the language of the Catholic Church, medicine, scientific terminology).

44. Members of a sentence- structural and semantic components of a sentence, expressed in words or phrases with their characteristic syntactic categories. Parts of speech and members of a sentence differ from each other and interact with each other, since each significant part of speech in a statement acts as one or another member of the sentence.

Criteria for selecting sentence members:

Logical (or semantic);

Formal (or grammatical);

The communicative function of a sentence that allows one to determine the topic and rheme of the message. Members of a sentence according to their function and in relation to the grammatical minimum of the sentence divide:

The main members are the subject and the predicate (they perform logical functions in a sentence and act as nuclear, grammatically supporting components of the sentence);

Secondary members - definition, addition and circumstance (perform structural and semantic functions in a sentence, expanding, clarifying, detailing the content of the statement).

There are dependency relationships between the main and minor members in a sentence: the minor members are grammatically dependent on the main members.

Functions of the main members of the proposal:

They are the center of the structure of the sentence, its core, since they are the ones who organize the minimal basis of the sentence;

They formally determine the grammatical organization of a sentence, express its grammatical meanings (modality, tense, person);

Perform a logical function.

Functions of minor members of a sentence:

The semantic function, that is, they are the distributors of its remaining members (main and secondary) or the entire sentence as a whole, when the needs of communication force the components of the sentence to be clarified, specified, and “expanded”;

They can be more informative than the main ones.

Subject(tracing paper from Latin subjectum “subject”) is a significant grammatically independent member of a sentence, denoting an object and pointing to a “logical subject” (in the traditional concept) or, more broadly, to the object to which the predicate refers. The subject can be expressed by a noun in it. etc., but in this position it can

any substantivized form, phraseological unit and even a whole sentence can be used.

Predicate- the main grammatically semi-independent member of a sentence, depending only on the subject and indicating an action, state, property or quality in their relation to the subject or, more broadly, to the object expressed by the subject, i.e. the predicate expresses the predicative attribute of the subject.

Signs of the predicate:

Formally depends on the subject;

Conveying modality and tense, it forms the predicative center of the sentence;

Usually expressed as a verb, but its place can also be taken by various adverbial phrases.

Secondary members of the sentence:

definition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with an objective meaning and denoting a sign, quality or property of an object. It is connected with the defined name (or any other substantivized part of speech) by an attributive connection according to

by the method of coordination, less often - by the method of control or adjacency.

The definition is usually expressed as an adjective;

addition- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining any member of a sentence with the meaning of an action, object or characteristic and denoting an object in its relation to the action, object or characteristic. The object is usually expressed by a noun in the indirect case and is attached to other words using a control. Types of add-ons:

The direct (expressed in the accusative case without a preposition) correlates with the subject, so it is sometimes classified as the main member of a sentence;

Indirect;

circumstance- a minor grammatically dependent member of a sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of an action or attribute or the sentence as a whole and denoting where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, or indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and the method of its manifestation. Circumstances are expressed by an adverb, the main type of syntactic connection is adjacency.

43. Proposal- the central unit of the syntactic system, and according to many modern linguists, in general, the central unit of language, the generation of which in speech is served by all other components of the language system as a whole. In the syntactic system, the sentence occupies a fundamental position, since it marks the transition from the sphere of language to the sphere of speech.

Offer functions:

Formation and expression of thoughts;

Description of a certain state of affairs as an integral ensemble of elements of the situation.

Offer properties:

Has a high pragmatic potential (compared to a phrase);

The connection to the communicative-pragmatic context is less than that of the text, when it is only one of the components of the text, and does not act autonomously (being a potential minimum of the text) in the role of a speech act, i.e., minimal discourse;

Ability to be the minimum possible text;

It is a unit of text, that is, a unit closer to the text than to a phrase;

Has a communicative purpose;

Intonationally designed;

Acts both as a speech and as a linguistic unit (like a phrase);

In itself, it is not reproducible as a finished, inventory item;

It is built from words (more precisely, from word forms) that are members of a sentence;

Each time it is built anew in speech: in the process of implementation (updating) of one of the invariant formal-content schemes (models) included in the syntactic system of the language; in the process of using certain (also invariant, belonging to the language) rules for its transformation from the original form to the final one.

The multidimensional nature of the proposal is manifested in the fact that it:

It is a communicative sign (a complex sign formation that can serve to convey a message; acts as a minimal communicative unit that directly correlates with a minimal communicative action - a speech act);

It has situational relevance (i.e., it correlates with a certain class of situations that are complex in structure as its complex denotation in the subject line and, accordingly, with a complex significative in the mental series);

“linking” a sentence to a specific situation is carried out using means that relate the situation being described to one or another modal plan and time plan;

It has a structural minimum, an initial structure, which can be reduced to the unity of subject and predicate; unity of subject, predicate and object; only to the predicate in itself (zero subject position);

Spreads and collapses, combines with other sentences into more complex complexes in accordance with a finite set of expansion rules and transformation rules;

When describing a sentence grammatically, a hierarchy of syntactic significant units is revealed: syntaxeme - sentence member - sentence;

The multidimensionality of the content structure of a sentence is manifested in the fact that

As a complex nomination, it describes a certain holistic state of affairs (as an ensemble of participants in the situation and the relationship connecting them, i.e., the unity of semantic actants and a semantic predicate);

As a predicative unit expresses a certain holistic judgment (as the unity of a logical subject and a logical predicate correlated with it);

How a communicative-information unit conveys a certain holistic message about something, which is embedded in one or another “package” (as the unity of the given and the new, as the unity of the definite and the indefinite, as the unity of theme and rheme, etc.);

As a communicative-pragmatic unit, it includes an invariant, context-independent part (propositional, factual component, or dictum) and a variable, contextually determined part (pragmatic frame, or communicative mode).

The same sentence combines several different substantive and formal structures, each of which acts as a way of “packaging” the information conveyed through the sentence:

Propositional (propositional, predicate-argumentative);

Predicative (predicative, subject-predicate);

Actualization (informational, identification, thematic and a number of other additional) - structures through which the conceptual categories of modality, temporality, personality, or personality - impersonality, affirmation - negation, etc., which have formative paradigms, are realized), ensuring the “binding” of the sentence to the described objective situation and the situation of utterance;

Intensional (speech-actual, or communicative-pragmatic).

1. The most important features of a sentence as a syntactic unit:

The act of predication (from Latin praedicatio - statement) - a statement about the subject of thought, the original image and its interpretation;

Predicativity is the grammatical expression of predication.

Predication (in the broad sense) establishes a connection between an object and a feature, and predication establishes a connection between what is communicated in a sentence and the situation in existence itself.

Predication is the act of connecting independent objects of thought, expressed in independent words, to display and interpret in language an event, a situation of reality; it involves attributing a certain attribute to an object - a subject: S is P. This attribute is called predicative, or predicate (from late Latin praedicatum - “said”). A simple sentence is characterized by one predication. Combining several predications in the structure of one sentence

called polypredicativity. The basic form is a complex sentence.