Geography, geology and geodesy

Basic landforms and their elements; characteristic points and lines. When designing and constructing railway, automobile and other networks, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the relief: mountainous, hilly, flat, etc. The relief of the earth's surface is very diverse, but the whole variety of relief forms is typified into a small number of basic forms to simplify its analysis...

Lecture 1.3 Terrain and its depiction on topographic maps and plans.

3.1. Definition of the term terrain. Basic landforms and their elements ; characteristic points and lines.

Relief the shape of the physical surface of the Earth, considered in relation to its level surface.

Relief is a collection of irregularities on land, the bottom of oceans and seas, varied in outline, size, origin, age and history of development.

When designing and constructing railway, road and other networks, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the terrain - mountainous, hilly, flat, etc.

The relief of the earth's surface is very diverse, but the entire variety of relief forms, to simplify its analysis, is typified into a small number of basic forms (Fig. 29).

Rice. 29. Landforms:

1 dell; 2 ridge; 3, 7, 11 mountain; 4 watershed; 5, 9 saddle; 6 thalweg; 8 river; 10 break; 12 terrace

The main landforms include:

Mountain is a cone-shaped relief form rising above the surrounding area. Its highest point is called the apex. The top can be sharp peak, or in the form of a platform plateau. The lateral surface consists of slopes. The line where the slopes merge with the surrounding terrain is called the sole or base of the mountain.

Basin a relief form opposite to a mountain, representing a closed depression. Its lowest point is the bottom. The lateral surface consists of slopes; the line where they merge with the surrounding area is called the edge.

Ridge this is a hill, elongated and constantly decreasing in some direction. The ridge has two slopes; in the upper part of the ridge they merge, forming a watershed line, or watershed

Hollow a form of relief opposite to the ridge and representing a constantly decreasing depression elongated in any direction and open at one end. Two slopes of the valley; merging with each other in the lowest part they form a drainage line or thalweg, along which water flows onto the slopes. The types of hollow are valley and ravine: the first is a wide hollow with gently turfed slopes, the second is a narrow hollow with steep exposed slopes. A valley is often the bed of a river or stream.

Saddle this is a place that is formed when the slopes of two neighboring mountains merge. Sometimes a saddle is the confluence of the watersheds of two ridges. Two valleys originate from the saddle and spread in opposite directions. In mountainous areas, roads or hiking trails usually run through saddles; That’s why saddles in the mountains are called passes.

3.2. Methods for depicting basic landforms.

To solve engineering problems, the relief image must provide: firstly, a quick determination with the required accuracy of the heights of terrain points, the direction of the steepness of the slopes and the slopes of the lines; secondly, a visual representation of the actual landscape of the area.

The terrain on plans and maps is depicted in various ways:

Hatching;

Dotted line;

Colored plastic

- using horizontal lines (isohypses (most often)

Numerical marks;

Conventional signs.

The horizontal line on the ground can be represented as a trace formed by the intersection of a level surface with the physical surface of the Earth. For example, if you imagine a hill surrounded by still water, then the shoreline of the water is horizontal (Fig. 1). The points lying on it have the same height.

Let us assume that the height of the water level relative to the level surface is 110 m (Fig. 30). Now suppose that the water level dropped by 5 m and part of the hill was exposed. The curved line of intersection of the water surfaces and the hill will correspond to a horizontal plane with a height of 105 m. If we successively lower the water level by 5 m and project the curved lines formed by the intersection of the water surface with the earth's surface onto a horizontal plane in a reduced form, we will obtain an image of the terrain with horizontal lines plane.

Thus, a curved line connecting all points of the terrain with equal elevations is called horizontal

Rice. 1. Method of depicting relief with horizontal lines

3.3 Methodology for determining the heights of contours and the heights of points lying between the contours. Line slope.

When solving a number of engineering problems, it is necessary to know the properties of contours:

1. All terrain points lying on the horizontal have equal elevations.

2. Horizontal lines cannot intersect on the plan, since they lie at different heights. Exceptions are possible in mountainous areas, when horizontal lines represent an overhanging cliff.

3. Horizontal lines are continuous lines. Horizontal lines interrupted at the frame of the plan are closed outside the plan.

4. The difference in heights of adjacent horizontal lines is calledrelief section heightand is designated by the letter h.

The height of the relief section within the plan or map is strictly constant. Its choice depends on the nature of the relief, scale and purpose of the map or plan. To determine the height of the relief section, the formula is sometimes used

h = 0.2 mm M,

where M scale denominator.

This height of the relief section is called normal.

5. The distance between adjacent contour lines on a plan or map is calledlaying down the slope or slope . Layout is any distance between adjacent horizontal lines (see Fig. 1), it characterizes the steepness of the terrain slope and is designated d.

The vertical angle formed by the direction of the slope with the horizon plane and expressed in angular measure is called the angle of inclination of the slopeν (Fig. 2). The greater the angle of inclination, the steeper the slope.

Rice. 2. Determination of slope and slope angle

Another characteristic of steepness is slope i . The slope of the terrain line is the ratio of the elevation to the horizontal distance. It follows from the formula (Fig. 31),that slope is a dimensionless quantity. It is expressed in hundredths (%) or thousandths ppm (‰).

If the angle of inclination of the slope is up to 45°, then it is depicted by horizontals; if its steepness is more than 45°, then the relief is indicated by special signs. For example, a cliff is shown on plans and maps with the corresponding symbol (Fig. 3).

An image of the main relief forms with horizontal lines is shown in rice. 3.

Rice. 3. Representation of landforms with horizontal lines

To depict the relief with horizontal lines, a topographical survey of the area is performed. Based on the survey results, coordinates (two plan coordinates and a height) are determined for characteristic relief points and plotted on the plan (Fig. 4). Depending on the nature of the relief, scale and purpose of the plan, choose the height of the relief section h.

Rice. 4. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

For engineering design usually h = 1 m. Contour marks in this case will be multiples of one meter.

The position of contour lines on a plan or map is determined using interpolation. In Fig. Figure 33 shows the construction of contour lines with marks 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 m. Contour lines that are multiples of 5 or 10 m are drawn thick in the drawing and signed. Signatures are applied in such a way that the top of the numbers indicates the direction of increase in relief. In Fig. 4 the horizontal line with a mark of 55 m is signed.

Where there is more coverage, dashed lines are applied (semi-horizontal). Sometimes, to make the drawing more visual, the horizontal lines are accompanied by small dashes, which are placed perpendicular to the horizontal lines, in the direction of the slope (towards the water flow). These lines are called bergshakes.

3.4. The concept of a profile. The principle and methodology of its construction along a line specified on a topographic map.

To project a terrain line onto a horizontal plane, you need to determine its horizontal location (projection of the line onto a horizontal plane) and reduce it to a certain scale. To project a polygon onto a horizontal plane (Fig. 26), the distances between its vertices and the horizontal projections of its angles are measured.

The set of linear and angular measurements on the earth's surface is calledgeodetic survey. Based on the results of geodetic survey, a plan or map is drawn up.

Rice. 5. Designing a section of the earth's surface onto a horizontal plane

Plan a drawing in which a horizontal projection of a small area of ​​terrain is depicted in a reduced and similar form.

Map a reduced and distorted image, due to the influence of the curvature of the Earth, of a horizontal projection of a significant part or all of the earth's surface, constructed according to certain mathematical laws.

Thus, both the plan and the map are reduced-scale images of the earth's surface on a plane. The difference between them is that when drawing up a map, the design is carried out with surface distortions due to the influence of the curvature of the Earth; on the plan, the image is obtained practically without distortion.

Depending on the purpose, plans and maps can be contour and topographic. On contour plans and maps, the situation is depicted using conventional symbols, i.e. only contours (outlines) horizontal projections local objects (roads, buildings, arable lands, meadows, forests, etc.).

In addition to the situation, topographic maps and plans also depict the terrain.

To design railways, highways, canals, routes, water pipelines and other structures, it is necessary to have a vertical section or profile of the terrain.

Terrain profileis a drawing that depicts in a reduced form a section of a vertical plane of the Earth's surface in a given direction.

As a rule, the terrain section (Fig. 6, a) is a curved line ABC...G . On the profile (Fig. 6, b) it is built in the form of a broken line abc...g . The level surface is depicted as a straight line. For greater clarity, vertical segments (heights, elevations) are made larger than horizontal segments (distances between points).

Rice. 6. Vertical section (a) and profile (b) of the terrain

Practical lessons:

Tasks solved on plans and maps

1. Determination of horizontal elevations of terrain points

A) The point lies on the horizontal.

In this case, the elevation of the point is equal to the horizontal elevation (see Fig. 7):

H A = 75 m; N C = 55 m.

b) The point lies on the slope between the horizontal lines.

If the point lies between the horizontal lines, then the shortest location is drawn through it, and the length of the segments is measured with a scale ruler a and b (see Fig. 7, point B ) and substitute it into the expression

where h height of the relief section. If a point lies between the horizontal and semi-horizontal, then instead h substitute into the formula 0.5h.

Rice. 7. Solving problems on a map with contour lines

2. Determining the steepness of the slope

The steepness of the slope in the direction of laying is determined by two indicators: slope and angle of inclination according to the formula

Therefore, the tangent of the angle of inclination of a line to the horizon is called its slope. The slope is expressed in thousandths of ppm (‰) or as a percentage (%). For example: i = 0.020 = 20‰ = 2%.

To graphically determine inclination angles based on a given position value d, scale M and the height of the relief section h build a schedule of deposits (see Fig. 8).

Points corresponding to the values ​​of the slope angles are marked along the straight line of the base of the graph. From these points, perpendicular to the base of the graph, segments equal to the corresponding plots are laid out on the map scale, namely

The ends of these segments are connected by a smooth curve (see Fig. 8).

The position of the line, the angle of inclination of which must be determined, is taken from the map using a meter, and then, by placing the measured segment on the graph between the base and the curve, the corresponding value of the inclination angle is found.

Rice. 8. Layout schedule for inclination angles

Similarly, a plot of slopes is constructed and used (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Layout schedule for slopes

3. Construction of a line with a given slope

The problem of constructing a line with a given slope is solved in the design of routes for railways, automobiles and other linear structures. It consists in the fact that from a certain point indicated on the map, it is necessary to draw a line with a given slope i in a given direction. To do this, first determine the value of the deposit d , corresponding to the given i and h . It is found from the slope graph or calculated using the formula

d = h/i.

Next, setting the meter solution equal to the obtained value d , place one of its legs at the starting point K , and with the other they mark the nearest horizontal line and thereby mark the point of the route, from which in turn they mark the next horizontal line, etc. (see Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Construction of a line with a given slope

4. Constructing a profile using a topographic map

A terrain profile is a reduced image of a vertical section of the terrain in a given direction.

Let it be necessary to construct a terrain profile along a line DE indicated on the map (Fig. 11). To construct a profile, a horizontal line is drawn on a sheet of paper (usually graph paper is used) and a line is drawn on it, usually on the scale of a map (plan). DE and the points of its intersection with horizontals and semi-horizontals. Then, from these points along perpendiculars, marks of the corresponding horizontal lines are laid (in Fig. 11 these are marks of 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80 and 82.5 m). To display the profile in more relief, point marks are usually plotted on a scale 10 times larger than the plan scale. By connecting the ends of the perpendiculars with straight lines, you get a profile along the line D.E.

Rice. 11. Constructing a profile using a topographic map

3.6. Questions for self-control

1. What is meant by terrain?

2. Name the landforms.

3. What is horizontal? Name its main properties.

4. What is the height of the relief section?

5. What is the laying of contours called?

6. What is line slope?

7. How is the normal height of the relief section determined?

8. How to determine the height of a point and the steepness of a line on a map?

9. What is a digital terrain model and electronic map?

10. What initial data are needed to create digital terrain models?

11. How are digital terrain models classified according to the method of placing the initial information and the rules for its processing on a computer?

Terrain- natural surface of the earth without taking into account artificial obstacles;... Source: Order of the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation dated July 17, 2008 N 108 (as amended on June 23, 2009) On approval of the Federal Aviation Rules Preparation and execution of flights in civil aviation... ... Official terminology

terrain- Shape (outline) of the outer surface of the lithosphere; a set of irregularities on land, the bottom of oceans and seas, varied in outline, size, origin, age and history of development. [RD 01.120.00 KTN 228 06] Mainline topics... ...

rugged terrain (terrain)- — Topics oil and gas industry EN broken ground … Technical Translator's Guide

terrain correction- — Topics oil and gas industry EN terrain correction … Technical Translator's Guide

- (French relief, from Latin relevare to raise, elevate). Convex image; sculptural works, more or less convex. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. RELIEF 1) convex sculptural images... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

RELIEF, relief, husband. (French relief). 1. Convex image on a plane (special). Reliefs can be weakly convex bas-reliefs and strongly convex high reliefs. 2. The structure of the earth's surface (geographical, geological). Rough terrain. Mountain... ... Dictionary Ushakova

1. Sculptural image on a plane. It can be recessed (coylanogryph) or protruding (bas-relief, high relief). 2. Surface configuration land plot(terrain). Source: Dictionary of architectural and construction terms... ... Construction dictionary

Relief- 1. Relief – a sculptural image on a plane. The relief can be recessed (koylanogriff) and protruding (bas-relief, high relief). 2. Relief - the configuration of the surface of the land plot (terrain) ... Builder's Dictionary

relief- a, m. relief m. 1. Convex image on a plane. BAS 1. The hall has four tiers and is decorated with reliefs of the best dramatic content. 1821. Sumarokov Walk 2 40. I admired the Chinese furniture... with reliefs and wooden... ... Historical Dictionary Gallicisms of the Russian language

- [fr. relief convexity] the totality of all forms of the earth's surface for each specific area and the Earth as a whole. It is formed as a result of the mutual influence of endogenous and exogenous processes on the earth’s crust. There are R. of different orders,... ... Geological encyclopedia

A set of irregularities on the surface of the land, the bottom of the oceans and seas, diverse in outline, size, origin, age and history of development. It is one of the main elements of terrain that determines its tactical properties. Relief... ...Marine Dictionary

The outline of a section of the earth's surface, including a set of land irregularities (elevations and depressions), as well as the ocean and seabed, is called terrain . The name of the term "relief" is of French origin from "relevo" - I raise.

The terrain is very diverse.
Most characteristic forms relief are:

Mountain - a rise on the earth's surface in the form of a dome or cone. A mountain has a peak, a base, and slopes.
The slopes can be flat or steep. If the slope immediately changes from smooth to steep, it is called a cliff. A very steep cliff is called a cliff.

Basin - a depression on the earth's surface, closed on all sides. You can figuratively imagine a basin as an element of the relief of the earth's surface, opposite the mountain.
In the basin there are slopes (or sides), as well as a bottom.

Hollow - a groove-shaped depression. In the hollow, there are also slopes and a bottom. A line drawn along the deepest part of the hollow is called drainage line .
The narrow ravine is called ravine (in the mountains - gorge ).

Ridge - the form of relief opposite the hollow represents an elevated part of the relief, usually elongated, having side slopes.
The upper part of the ridge, drawn along its length, is called watershed line .

Saddle - low relief of the area between two neighboring ridges. Typically, a saddle is the beginning of two valleys extending in opposite directions from it.
In mountainous areas, saddles usually pass through passes - communication routes between mountain ranges, along which roads and trails are laid.

Plain - low-lying terrain with flat terrain. If the height of the plain above sea level does not exceed 200 m, it is called lowland . A plain located at an altitude of more than 200 m above sea level is called plateau .

To solve many problems in engineering construction, military affairs and others, it is necessary to have a reliable understanding of the topography of a given area. Projecting points on the earth's surface onto a horizontal plane makes it possible to study the distance between objects on this surface with varying degrees of error, but does not give an idea of ​​its relief.
In order for a topographic map or plan to meet the requirements of practical tasks, it is necessary to mark on them the irregularities of the displayed area of ​​the terrain, i.e., the relief. To solve this problem, various leveling methods are used, the results of which are then plotted on graphic image plot.

Over the long history of the development of cartography, the most various ways images of terrain on flat maps and plans. The most widespread are three methods of drawing relief on a map - strokes, shading and horizontal lines. The method of drawing relief on a plane using strokes has not stood the test of time, and is not currently used, therefore, to depict the relief on topographic maps and plans, methods of horizontal lines and shading are usually used.
You can learn more about how terrain elements are depicted on maps in the next article.

Terrain is a collection of irregularities on the earth's surface. The terrain is divided into convex and concave irregularities of various shapes and sizes. But despite this, these irregularities can be divided into five types of relief surfaces: mountains, ridges, hollows, basins and saddles.

Mountain is a hill shaped like a cone. The mountain has a peak, from which the relief decreases towards the base.

Ridge It is a hill elongated in one direction. The ridge has a watershed line - a line connecting the opposite slopes of the ridge.

Basin is a closed depression. The basin has a relief shape opposite to the mountain. The basin has the lowest point - the bottom. Lakes and swamps often appear at the bottom.

Hollow is a relief form opposite the ridge - a depression elongated in one direction. As a rule, the hollows are covered with turf and bushes.

Saddle represents a decline between two peaks. In the mountains, trails, also called passes, run through ridges along saddles.

1 - mountain, 2 - basin, 3 - ridge, 4 - hollow, 5 - saddle, 6 - ledge

Relief depiction on topographic maps is carried out in three ways: the contour method, the hillshade and the hypsometric method. The hypsometric and hillshade method is the designation of heights using shades of colors depending on the height and is used on maps with a scale starting from 1:500000. The most common method is a method of drawing horizontal lines that indicate relief unevenness that have the same height. The direction of the slope of the horizontal lines is indicated by a dotted line with an arrow at the end, i.e. for example, if a mountain is indicated, then the arrow will be directed in the opposite direction from the top towards the bottom.

In addition to the arrow indicating the direction of the slope, it can be determined by other signs. Based on the elevation marks, it is obvious that the slope will be directed from more highest point to the smaller one. According to the contour marks - the top of the numbers of the contour marks is directed towards the heights of ridges and mountains, i.e. in the opposite direction from the direction of the slope. Along lakes, rivers and streams - water flows to the lowest places, therefore the direction of the slope will be directed towards water bodies.

The distance between two horizontal lines on the ground is called relief section height. Rasta Every fifth horizontal line is made bolder to make it easier to read the terrain. The closer the horizontal lines are to each other, the steeper the slope. On topographic maps with a scale of 1:25000, horizontal lines are drawn every 5 meters, 1:50000 - every 10 m, 1:100000 - every 20 m. The zero horizontal line is the average level of the Baltic Sea.

Determining the steepness of the slope.
The distance between two contour lines on a map is called mortgage, which shows the steepness of the slope. The easiest way to determine steepness is to use a ruler or by eye. To do this, you need to know that on maps of Russia the standard section height for any scale is such that a slope of 1 cm is equal to a slope slope of 1°. Therefore, the number of times the elevation on the map is less than 1 cm, the number of times the slope is greater than 1°, and vice versa.

For example, the location on the map is 2 mm, that is, five times less than 1 cm, therefore the steepness is five times greater than 1°, namely 5°.

Types of relief and their origin

Depending on the extent (size) and predominance of certain forms of relief, types of relief are distinguished : flat, hilly and mountainous terrain.

The forms and types of relief are, as mentioned above, the result geological processes, are composed of certain rocks and are divided by origin depending on the predominant factor - the force that caused their formation.

Forms and types of relief caused by the activity of endogenous forces, i.e. formed due to movements of the earth's crust and lithosphere (vertical or oscillatory, horizontal or mountain-building) and accompanying magmatism and metamorphism, are called tectonic forms . These forms and types include the largest relief forms: macro -, megareliefplanetaryrelief , emerged and lying on the geological structures of the global and largest sizes. Builders erect various structures, mainly on land (continents), within which platforms and folded mountainous areas with smaller structures are distinguished. Therefore, we will consider below the types of relief characteristic of continents. They, like the geological structures or tectonics of the Earth, seem constant over a large period of geological time (thousands and hundreds of thousands of years).

Landforms created endogenous processes, change under the influence of exogenous forces that flow on the Earth’s surface under the influence external sources energy ( solar radiation, temperature fluctuations, movement and composition of water and wind, living organisms, including humans). The listed energy sources operate and change constantly; the relief forms they form are not constant and actively change their shape over time. Among the exogenous forms of relief, the most striking are those that arose due to the destructive and creative activity of exogenous processes. Erosion forms (gorges, river valleys, ravines, gullies, funnels) arose as a result of the destructive action of flowing waters (atmospheric, river and underground). They are very dynamic in their outlines and can change noticeably before the eyes of one generation of people. Within their limits, other exogenous processes can develop: landslides, landslides, etc. Accumulative forms of relief arise when the strength of the exogenous factor decreases and, accordingly, the accumulation of products of rock destruction - erosion and denudation by water and wind. Accumulative river terraces and floodplains, dunes and dunes are formed, composed of the corresponding types of continental
sediments (Table 20).

The main types of relief: flat, hilly and mountainous.

Flat relief consists of vast areas of land with flat

or a slightly undulating surface, within which height fluctuations do not exceed 0 ... 200 m.

Among the plains, their groups are distinguished depending on:

– positions above sea level of the plain are negative (depressions, depressions) such as the Caspian lowland, low-lying (up to 200 m) – West Siberian lowland, elevated (200...500 m) – Russian plain and plateau (more than 500 m) – Central Siberian plateau;

– depths and degrees of relief dissection (assessment is made by height fluctuations over 2 km): weakly dissected (height fluctuations up to 10 m), finely dissected (height fluctuations up to 25 m), roughly dissected (height fluctuations up to 200 m);

– on the shape of the earth’s surface: horizontal, inclined, concave and convex.

Absolute marks and dissected relief are a consequence (result), first of all, of the latest (Neogene-Quaternary) vertical movements associated with horizontal movements. The origin of plains is structural, accumulative and sculptural. Structural (primary, platform) plains formed on the site of platform sections of the earth's crust. They have a cover of quietly lying layers of sedimentary or consonant bodies of igneous rocks (Caspian, West Siberian lowlands, Central Siberian table plain).

Accumulative plains have not only a platform sedimentary cover of almost horizontally occurring marine sediments, but also continental - alluvial, glacial moraine, aeolian and other sediments that arose due to exogenous processes. For example, on the East European Plain, Quaternary glacial deposits are very widespread: moraine , fluvioglacial or limnic, which have a large thickness - tens to hundreds of meters. These deposits are dominated by alternating layers of sand and clay, which make up various hills and ridges called kamas , drumlinamioses. Within such forms of relief and sediments, builders carry out their activities, who must take into account the possibility of modern exogenous processes occurring on such areas of the earth’s surface, primarily landslides and water erosion. The East European Plain is classified as primary (on a platform cover). In the foothills and intermountain troughs (on a folded foundation), sloping plains arise due to the accumulation of alluvial, deluvial-proluvial, and sometimes mudflow deposits.

Sculptural plains arise, as a rule, at the site of the destruction of ancient mountains, leveling the primary surface through the processes of denudation and abrasion. Abrasion plains are formed as a result of the destruction of coasts by sea waves. A denudation plain is an area of ​​land with a folded foundation lying close to the earth's surface, i.e. the emergence to the surface of intrusive, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, crushed into folds and penetrated by various faults. The most striking example is Za - Ural plain, located east of the Ilmen and Vishnevye mountains and spurs of the Uraltau ridge, and occupying most of the territory of the Chelyabinsk region. It was formed during the Meso-Cenozoic due to the destruction of Paleozoic Ural mountains, denudation of terrigenous sediments, as well as abrasion activity of the West Siberian Sea, into which all clastic sediments were carried. Since the Trans-Ural Plain was formed due to two important exogenous processes, it is more correct to call it abrasion-denudation. The Kazakh small hills also belong to the denudation plains.

Hilly terrain is characterized by alternating hills with relative heights of no more than 200 m and low areas in the form of hollows. The mountainous terrain is an alternation of large elevations in the form of mountains and ridges more than 200 m high and depressions in the form of valleys, depressions and basins. Depending on the absolute elevations and the relative excess of 2 km in length, mountainous reliefs are divided into high, medium-altitude and low. High mountains have absolute elevations of more than 2000 m with a relative elevation of 1000 m along lines perpendicular to the direction of the river valleys. Medium-altitude mountains have absolute elevations of 700...2000 m and a relative incision depth of 500...700 m. Low mountains have absolute elevations of 700...800 m and a depth of dissection of 150...450 m. The slopes are usually gentle. Based on their origin, they are classified as tectonic, volcanic and erosive.

Tectonic mountains were formed as a result of complex tectonic movements (horizontal and associated vertical movements). They occupy most of the territories of the Cenozoic mountain-fold regions (the mountains of Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Caucasus), as well as certain territories of ancient mountain-fold regions. At the base of the Southern Urals lies the Ural Paleozoic mountain-fold region; the mountains were preserved only to the west of the Trans-Ural Plain, where individual blocks of the earth’s crust, as a result of recent and modern vertical movements, had the highest rates (up to 8 mm/year) and amplitudes (up to 1000 m) of uplifts. Mountains that were revived due to the uplift of individual blocks of folded areas in Neogene-Quaternary times are classified as block mountains.

Volcanic mountains arose as a result of volcanic activity and were preserved in areas of Alpine (Cenozoic) folding, as in Kamchatka, in the Alps, or in zones of modern mid-ocean ridges and rift zones, such as Mount Kilimanjaro.

Erosion mountains are formed as a result of the erosional dismemberment of ancient structural and accumulative plains due to the Neogene-Quaternary uplifts of these blocks above the erosion base. An example of such mountains is the Putorana plateau (elevations up to 1700 m) on the Central Siberian Plateau.