A "pseudonym" is literally a false name or nickname that someone deliberately chooses to hide their official passport name.

Pseudonyms became very widespread at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. In Russia they arose with the advent of socio-political literature from the 40s to the 60s of the 18th century. The main reason for their emergence was the difficult censorship conditions of tsarist times, as well as the desire of high-ranking authors to express their views, hiding their real name and official position for a number of reasons.

Among various secret measures, the party also began to use pseudonyms as party nicknames. It was proposed to form pseudonyms from the most common Russian names. As a result, the most famous figures of the RSDLP received the following party pseudonyms:

ANTONOV (V. A. Ovseenko)

BOGDANOV (A. A. Malinovsky)

VOLODIN (K. E. Voroshilov)

DANILOV (F. I. Gurvich)

EGOROV (Levin)

ZINOVIEV (O. A. Appelbaum)

IVANOV (Levina)

MARTYNOV (A. S. Picker)

MIKHAILOV (Postolovsky)

OSIPOV (Zalkind)

PANIN (Halberstadt)

SERGEEV (A.I. Rykov)

FOMIN (V.N. Krokhmal)

Against such a background, the surname LENIN (from the name Lena) did not make any special impression, and the pseudonym IVANOVICH, chosen by I.V. Dzhugashvili for registration at the IV Congress, did not particularly stand out.

However, only Lenin and Stalin retained both their surname and pseudonym after the revolution, signing with both surname and pseudonym at the same time:

Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars V. I. Ulyanov-Lenin

People's Commissariat of Nationalities I. V. Dzhugashvili - Stalin

And people remembered both their pseudonyms and last names equally well. Both have become equally part of history. At the same time, pseudonyms survived longer than surnames and became the main names with which the activities of these historical figures are associated. And this suggests that both pseudonyms were extremely well chosen. For Lenin, this was one of the one and a half hundred pseudonyms he used. For Stalin, this was also one of his three dozen pseudonyms, and the very last one. How did he come up with it? Accidentally? Or did you pursue your quest purposefully and consistently?

Almost all biographers of Stalin are “subjective idealists.” They all create a “targeted”, pre-planned historical version, which is spurred on by everything that “works” for it, which allows them to make the “biography of the villain” fascinating to read, like a detective story. All the rest, so-called. “controversial” or “neutral” facts are quietly discarded.

Some elementary facts of Stalin's biography are still unknown, especially personal facts, usually known for figures of a much smaller scale. For example, the year of birth is still controversial, as discussed below. All his pseudonyms are unknown. There is no idea about his most important, main pseudonym - Stalin- under which he entered world history.

Paradoxically, even during Stalin’s lifetime the question of publishing the 17th volume of his collected works was not raised, and hence the question of 18th volume, reference, which should have completed the entire publication.

The publication of the Works unexpectedly stalled at volume 13. But IMEL and its leadership simply “lay low” and decided not to remind about themselves, being well informed that this issue did not seem relevant to Stalin himself.

This automatically entailed the fact that no one at IMEL was ever entrusted with the “dangerous” work of collecting, systematizing and commenting on pseudonyms on this topic in the period 1947 - 49. not a single special research article was devoted to the historical-party and academic press, although as an honorary academician, he had every reason to receive attention from the “Biographical” and “bibliographical” series published by the USSR Academy of Sciences about the country's scientists. IMEL and Istpart publications also remained deeply silent on this matter.

At the same time, in 1949, during the period of struggle against “cosmopolitans”, when newspapers began to reveal literary pseudonyms such as “Viktorov”, “Marinin”, reporting the Jewish surnames of their true owners (i.e. writers, poets, journalists, hiding behind these pseudonyms for decades), Stalin spoke publicly at one of the meetings and condemned those who revealed literary pseudonyms, emphasizing that this is unacceptable. In this “instruction” IMEL saw a hint that the question of the pseudonyms of Stalin himself could not be the subject of not only research, but also any attention. Such was the atmosphere of the “cult,” which gave rise to the most unexpected interpretation of the “leader’s instructions” on the part of the clique of sworn “ideologists.”

List of Stalin's pseudonyms

Without considering what we were able to find to be completely exhaustive, we have collected together all the known printed (written) and oral pseudonyms (nicknames, nicknames) of Stalin and arranged them alphabetically.

Among them 18 pseudonyms from printed works 6 party nicknames given in short biography written in 1925 by I. Tovstukha (then an IMEL employee and a prominent party worker), and three literary pseudonyms identified from Georgian periodicals late XIX century. Besides, two oral pseudonyms not indicated by I. Tovstukha in 1925 are given without reference to the source in the book by D. Volkogonov, and one- in the book of Hungarian Sovietologists.

The total number of all identified Stalinist oral and printed pseudonyms is 30 units.

1. Beshoshvili I.
   
2. Basil
   
3. Gilashvili
   
4. David
   
5. J-shvili
   
6. Ivanovich
7. K.S.
8. Ice rink.
9. Co..
10. K.Co.
11. Koba
12. Koba Ivanovich
13. Comrade K.
    
14. Nizharadze (Nizheradze)
    
15. Melikyants
    
16. Same
    
17. Chizhikov
    
18. Chopur
19. S -n.K
20. Salin, K.
21. Solin, K.
22. Soseli (Sozeli)
23. Soselo
24. Art. AND.
25. Art. TO.
26. Stalin, K.
27. Stephin, K.
28. Stalin, I.V.

For comparison, the number of pseudonyms of V.I. Lenin is 146 units, and of them 17 foreign and 129 Russians.

By carefully studying the above list, we already get some idea about the process of Stalin's pseudonym creation, about some of his favorite and specific letters and words that he chose for pseudonyms, about his consistent variation of some pseudonyms and the complete randomness of others. If you weed out random pseudonyms, it is easier to operate with constant, stable ones and understand their logic.

First of all, some surnames do not look like pseudonyms at all. The only thing that differentiates them from pseudonyms is that there are no initials. Therefore, these are nicknames, party names for appearances, and not pseudonyms. Indeed, “Vasily”, “Gilashvili”, “Ivanovich”, “Nizharadze”, “Chizhikov”, “Chopur” are nicknames used by Stalin in extremely short periods - immediately after escaping from prison or exile, or when traveling to the party congress or to another region, that is, almost every time in isolated cases and every time anew, including using a false passport, which, when no longer needed, was simply thrown away. All these “pseudonyms” are based on the names of real people: for example, a worker Nizharadze was known to Stalin from Batumi, P. A. Chizhikov- in Vologda (with his real passport, Stalin fled from Vologda exile). How "Ivanovich" Stalin was delegated to IV Unification party congress in Stockholm and is noted in its minutes as a representative of the Tiflis organization.

In fact, only two letters - TO. And WITH. attracted Stalin and were used by him in different variations to create pseudonyms. And this is no coincidence: TO And WITH- the two most common letters of the Russian alphabet, they have the most words in the Russian language.

The history of the pseudonym "Koba"

Starting with the letter " TO"was Stalin's first stable pseudonym - Koba, under which he entered the history of the revolutionary movement in the Caucasus and by which he was generally known in the party until 1917.

Starting with the letter " WITH"Stalin's main pseudonym was created, under which he entered into world history. But he did not come to him right away. Before "Stalin" there were several other pseudonyms starting with the letter WITH, including his first two pseudonyms, under which his poems were published in Georgian in the newspapers “Iveria” and “Kvali”. These aliases Soselo And Sozeli- diminutives of Joseph, and equivalent to Russian - Osenka and Osechka. Stalin first used these pseudonyms in 1895, 1896 and 1899, when his poem was reprinted in a collection dedicated to the 75th anniversary of Rafiel Eristavi. These were pseudonyms without any pretensions or frills.

But other pseudonyms that preceded or coexisted until 1907 with his more permanent pseudonym Koba contained a hint of pretension. And Stalin, as can be seen from the analysis of these pseudonyms, while choosing and inventing them for himself, hesitated all the time, not daring to dwell on them precisely because of their rather transparent pretentiousness. But his pretentiousness was restrained, it was hidden behind the simplicity of the form and was lexically brief. Two syllables - this is how young Joseph Dzhugashvili limited the length of his pseudonyms: Da-vid, Ka-to, Ko-ba, Sa-lin, So-lin, Ste-fin.

Variants of pseudonyms built on a Georgian nominal basis using the name of the father or mother were decisively rejected by him after one or two uses. Yes, pseudonym I. Beshshvili, appeared several times in the Gantiali newspaper, then disappeared without a trace. It was based on the Georgian name of his father - Besarion or Beso. Based on another nickname - Kato- originally the name of the mother was Ekaterina Dzhugashvili and the first wife of Ekaterina Svanidze, in Georgian Keke or Kete.

However, Stalin's claims went in a completely different direction, and not in the affirmation or glorification of related principles. The pseudonym speaks eloquently about this “ David", i.e. small, modest biblical David- the winner of the huge Goliath - this is the meaning of this early “oral” pseudonym, or nickname, which Stalin at one time wanted to establish for himself.

Even more serious claims were associated with the rethought pseudonym “ K.Kato", i.e. none other than the ancient Roman figure - Marcus Porcius Cato - consul, augur, censor, commander, writer, strict adherent of discipline and order, progressive in the conduct of affairs, consistent opponent of Carthage ( "Carthage must be destroyed!") - these are the historical characters that impressed Stalin at the age of 23 - 26. And there was no accident in the choice, everything was carefully thought out, even the initials: K. Kato. They testified that Stalin was well acquainted with the Latin original. For although in school textbooks Cato was always called Marcus Porcius, his Latin name, to distinguish him from his son, Cato the Younger, was usually written C. Cato, for he was given the honorary name Censorius. But “Kato” was too transparent, and Stalin did not dwell on it.

His pseudonym is approximately from the summer of 1903(in Kutaisi prison) becomes Koba, and from January 1904, under this pseudonym, Stalin became known in the revolutionary movement of Transcaucasia.

He varies this pseudonym in the illegal press, but it remains easily recognizable everywhere: K., K.Ko., Koba Ivanovich, Comrade K. And it easily takes root, is well remembered, although not everyone (especially outside the Caucasus) can understand it hidden meaning and meaning. But this is exactly what Stalin needs: he wants to have a pseudonym with meaning, but in such a way that this meaning is not very obvious and would not be offered, as they say, “on the forehead.” Let only the very smart guess.

What did the name Koba mean?

No matter how we interpret this word, no matter what versions we accept as genuine, oddly enough, we always come to the conclusion that this pseudonym had a symbolic meaning for the young Dzhugashvili. And very deeply symbolic.

If assume that Koba (Kobe, Kova, Kob) taken from Church Slavonic, then it means - witchcraft, omen of augur, sorcerer, soothsayer, which is very close to the previous Stalinist pseudonym K. Kato, but in a broader and more generalized sense.

If but proceed from the fact that this word Georgian and means a name, then Koba is the Georgian equivalent of the name Persian king Kobades, who played a big role in the early medieval history of Georgia.

King Koba conquered Eastern Georgia, under him the capital of Georgia was moved from Mtskheta to Tbilisi (end of the 5th century).

But Koba not just a king from the Sassanid dynasty, he - according to the Byzantine historian Theophanes - great wizard. Obliged at one time by his throne magicians from an early communist sect that preached equal division of all property, Koba brought the sectarians closer to control, which caused horror among the upper classes, who decided to plot against Koba and overthrew him from the throne. But the imprisoned communist king was freed by a woman devoted to him and he regained his throne. These details of the biography of Tsar Koba in some ways (communist ideals, prison, a woman’s help in escaping, triumphant return to the throne) coincided with the facts of Stalin’s biography. Moreover, they continued to coincide even when Stalin parted with this pseudonym, because in 1904 - 1907. Stalin could not, of course, foresee 1936-38, but he knew that his double, Tsar Koba, in 529 (two years before his death) brutally dealt with all his former allies, the Mazdakite communists.

Some foreign biographers of Stalin (and, after him, domestic ones who imitate them), relying on the instructions of some of their superficial Georgian informants, believe that Stalin allegedly borrowed the pseudonym Koba from the name of the hero of one of the novels of the Georgian classic A. Kazbegi - “The Patricide” whose name was also Koboi, and who appears in the novel as an abrek mountaineer leading the struggle for the independence of his homeland. However, it should be borne in mind that A. Kazbegi himself has a secondary name Koba, it was taken from King Koba, after whom it became widespread in Georgia. But it is also important to note that Stalin could not be impressed by the image of a lone abrek, since the image of the communist Tsar Koba was both historically significant and symbolically immeasurably closer to Stalin’s entire worldview. In addition, in Stalin's political articles and speeches in the period 1902 - 1907. we find clear traces of his familiarity with Persian history of the Sassanid era. One of them is the systematic and favorite use of the term by Stalin satraps to designate tsarist officials in Russia.

For Georgians, this was not only a generally understood, but also a multi-talking term. There's no doubt that historical prototype, which served as the basis for the pseudonym Koba, i.e. Communist Tsar Kobades impressed Stalin as a state and politically strong, significant personality, and in addition, he had in his biography features strikingly similar to the biography and psychology of Stalin himself.

However, the pseudonym Koba was convenient only in the Caucasus. As soon as Joseph Dzhugashvili found himself more closely connected with Russian party organizations, as soon as he “worn out” in Russian prisons and Siberian exile, as soon as he began to work in such purely Russian regions as the Vologda province and St. Petersburg, the question of a change arose before him. too Georgian pseudonym Koba to some other one that sounds Russian and makes sense for Russian people.

And it is quite logical that after being in exile in Solvychegodsk (or as the local Vologda residents then said - “on the Salt”), Joseph Dzhugashvili appears in the newspaper “Social Democrat” under new pseudonyms (1910) - K.S. - K.S-n, K.Stefin, and a little later, in 1912, in Zvezda - already K.Salin, and then K. Solin. The latter is completely clear in its connection with Sol, Usolye, Solvychegodsk, - it is transparent. Before him, Stalin used the less transparent K. Salin (from Latin, and not from the Russian name for salt - salsa). But this pseudonym immediately showed its unsuitability due to the fact that it could easily be confused with the Russian “lard,” which had a clearly negative meaning, which Stalin initially simply could not have known due to insufficient familiarity with the Russian language, and even more so with Russian culinary traditions. symbolism. But he also did not stay with the pseudonym Solin: in the meaning of “salt of the earth,” that is, in the figurative high evangelical meaning, the Russian people did not perceive salt. And this was quite enough for Stalin to discard this version of the pseudonym without regret.

Moreover, his pseudonym passed briefly K.Stefin, i.e. Stephin Koba, Koba Stefa (Stepanida, Stefania) - the first of those who followed after the escape from Solvychegodsk exile. This pseudonym was, apparently, the last tribute to feeling on Stalin’s part: it was taken in honor of the woman who helped him escape from the house of M.P. Kuznakova, where he was under surveillance by the local police. A certain Stefa lulled the vigilance of both the hostess Kuznakova and the local police officer, undoubtedly under the influence of the masculine charm of the fiery Georgian I. Dzhugashvili.

Stalin turned 32 years old. He worked in the revolutionary movement for almost 15 years, during which time he changed two dozen different aliases. Of these, only one - Koba - took root well and had a meaning that completely satisfied Stalin. But it could not be preserved further due to the expansion of Stalin’s activities beyond the Transcaucasus.

The question of choosing a new pseudonym (along with Koba or instead of Koba) arose before Stalin almost no earlier than the fall of 1911. However, this question acquired particular relevance for Stalin in the following year, 1912.

Stalin's "arshin of vodka"

Arriving for the first time in the North of Russia, in Solvychegodsk, in March 1908, and then after a quick escape, he was again sent there in March 1910 and stayed there until the fall of 1911, i.e., having lived in the North of Russia in total 2 years and 9 months, Stalin discovered Russia, the real Russian people, getting to know its best, purest part - the Vologda residents, the Vycheg residents, that is, the descendants of the ancient Novgorodians, not affected by the corrupting influence of Central and Southern Russia.

Here, in the North, having cut off from the Transcaucasian environment and intrigues, Stalin for the first time feels what Russia is like, what a huge moral and political potential for the revolution the local Russian people make up, deeply pure at heart, crystal honest, sincerely alien to any capitalist temptations, ready for self-sacrifice and limitless patience.

Stalin encounters the Russian indigenous people for the first time and realizes that it will be quite easy for him to win the sympathy of this people, because these people are trusting, open, and ready to sacrifice themselves for the sake of a bright idea and for the sake of someone who seems to him smarter, stronger and more decisive than himself. And this opens up completely new perspectives both in revolutionary work and in the revolutionary career of Koba himself.

The fact is that in December 1912 Stalin was about to turn 33 years. Already on the eve of this event, at the end of 1911, he considered this period to be key for himself, as a result of which he decided at all costs to escape from exile in the fall of 1911. The failure associated with the arrest on September 9 did not discourage him, given that the decisions of the Prague Conference only confirmed his confidence in his lucky star and in the need to be the architect of his own happiness precisely at the decisive moment of his 33rd birthday - the age of great achievements. That is why, having found himself again in St. Petersburg from the end of February 1912, Stalin developed vigorous activity in preparation for the release of the first issue of Pravda, which happened on April 22, 1912. On the same day, Stalin was arrested and exiled away from St. Petersburg, into the very wilderness - in Narym region. But Stalin also escaped from Narym exile, and in the same 1912, the most important and decisive year for him. Stalin himself considered this escape so brilliant and classic that, contrary to his rules, he told details about it after the revolution to some foreign interviewers. For example, the observant Henri Barbusse noted that the main reason for the success of this escape was Stalin’s excellent knowledge of the psychology of the ordinary Russian people.

Stalin was not betrayed (despite his accent and appearance) by the simplest and most seasoned Russian people - coachmen, peasants, inn servants, without whose assistance no escape across all of Russia would have been possible. Other Russian revolutionaries, especially among the intelligentsia, often could not find mutual language With ordinary people, or they stood out so much from the masses with their “lordly” habits or behavior that they aroused suspicion among common people, who, being strictly accustomed to Russian state discipline, immediately reported “strange bars” to their superiors. It was thanks to such denunciations of coachmen, maids, janitors and other “forced people” that the most skillfully prepared escapes from the Siberian exiles of the Decembrists, Chernyshevsky and the mass of Narodnaya Volya nobles were thwarted and failed.

Stalin, intuitively and consciously using some traits of the Russian character, knew how to win over the coachmen on the Siberian highways. He did not beg them to hide him from the police with promises of money and did not offer them, like a master, to “give them vodka.” Stalin did his best to avoid people perceiving him as a person who wanted to “bribe” them, to do something illegal for a bribe, because he well understood how such proposals offended open, naive, honest, simple Russian provincial people. Instead, he “honestly” told the coachmen that he had no money to pay for the trip, but fortunately he had a couple of bottles of vodka and he offered to pay at "Arshina of vodka" for each run between populated areas, as long as these damasks are enough. The coachman, of course, laughingly began to assure this clearly non-Russian foreigner that vodka is measured in buckets, not arshins. And then Stalin pulled out a wooden arshin - a 71 cm long board - from behind his boot, took out several metal cups from the bag, tightly placed the arshin with them, poured vodka into them and showed in practice how he understood “arshin of vodka”. This caused everyone to laugh and have fun, since all this was somehow new, unusual, and pleasantly “stimulated” the Russian people in an atmosphere of dullness and routine provincial life. The main thing is that this approach turned a bribe from a “handout” and “bribery” into a friendly game, deprived this entire transaction of the indecency that embarrassed people, because it created a situation of friendly jokes, excitement and friendly interaction, since often the second or third “arshin of vodka” was drunk together. “And where did you come from, such a cheerful guy!- the coachmen said, not without regret parting with the unusual passenger. - “Come to us again!”, - since he got off after three or four stations, from where he continued the same game with other coachmen, - always driving a short section of the route and never saying the final destination of his journey, and generally not mentioning a single station that he did not know in I didn’t want to get the name wrong. He drove as long as “an arshin of vodka” or several arshins was enough. And so he steadily and reliably moved from Siberia to European Russia, avoiding any encounters with the police.

So, despite all his Georgian, “Kapkaz” appearance and despite his clearly non-Russian accent and speech, Stalin succeeded in his daring escapes from the most remote corners Russian Empire. He knew the people. And the people, feeling this, were on his side, of course, without suspecting who they were really dealing with.

He is unbending and flexible like steel

Arriving in St. Petersburg in mid-September 1912, Stalin threw himself headlong into revolutionary work. His 33rd anniversary takes on a solemn character with record-breaking victorious results from his decisive year in his life:

1. Three times successful escapes.
2. Election to the party leadership.
3. Active, triumphant work in St. Petersburg for the elections of Bolshevik deputies to the State Duma.
4. The successful and expanding emergence of Pravda, the formation around it of a broad Bolshevik core among the working class and in the revolutionary movement.
5. Clearly the open approval and favorable attitude of V.I. Lenin himself.

All these facts taken together cause Stalin to make a previously formed decision - to devote his activities exclusively to work in Russia, to leave, break away from his Transcaucasian region, and enter the broad road of all-Russian political activity.

Trips abroad, to Austria-Hungary, left the impression on Stalin: “It turns out that the devil is not so scary!” It turns out that it’s not scary to participate in solving not only purely internal problems and the Russian labor movement, but also in international problems labor movement, which still remained the prerogative of such refined representatives of the highly educated intelligentsia in the party as Ganetsky, Lunacharsky, Krasin, Kollontai, Litvinov, Armand, Borovsky, who formed the vanguard of the Leninist diplomatic cohort, who had both an appropriate education and scientific level and experience of secular communication, and, not least, having knowledge of three or four European languages.

Stalin, of course, could not at that time dream of joining this cohort closely, but after visiting Krakow and Vienna at the end of 1912, he could already recognize himself as understanding “foreign problems.” He began to study intensively German, having begun to read and understand German political literature quite well.

All this taken together predetermined the planned change of pseudonym. Neither in the party of the Russian proletariat, nor even more so in the face of the international labor movement, Joseph Dzhugashvili, as a member of the Bolshevik leadership, could no longer remain Koba. It became completely incomprehensible against the background of a different language environment, and even turned into something frivolous, slightly comical. And the old seminarian Joseph Dzhugashvili, who diligently studied ancient Greek philosophy, knew perfectly well the classical philosophical postulate of Aristotle that funny is the main reflection of the imperfect, and therefore funny is the most unacceptable thing in politics.

Humor, laughs, giggles and hahahanki have always been associated with the idea of ​​clowning, buffoonery, also among the common Russian people, who considered such “humorists” as holy fools, and therefore did not treat them seriously for the most part.

The Russian people needed serious, strict, respectable leaders who did not throw words to the wind. His pseudonym would now be:

1. Sounding Russian and Russian in design.
2. Extremely serious, significant, impressive in content, not allowing any interpretations or misunderstandings.
3. Have deep meaning, and at the same time not particularly conspicuous, not trying to achieve effect, be calm.
4. Easily pronounced in any language and phonetically close to Lenin’s pseudonym, but in such a way that the similarity is also not felt “over the top.”

Stalin came to all these conclusions gradually if we analyze his work on his 22 pseudonyms over ... 17 years (1895 - 1912). And all these conditions were met by the pseudonym - Stalin.

It’s hard to say now, when there is no one left alive from the old Bolshevik party, as there was then perceived Stalin's new pseudonym. It can be assumed that they nevertheless noticed him, but they reacted calmly: there were a lot of pseudonyms in the party at that time. But in 1935, Henri Barbusse wrote without hiding his admiration: "This - iron Man. His surname gives us his image: Stalin - steel. He is unbending and flexible, like steel.".

Apparently, Barbusse grasped Stalin’s main idea, which guided him in his choice: this pseudonym for the leader of a revolutionary movement in a huge, diverse empire, whose task is to forge a strong, steely, iron party, ready for the upcoming battles. Steel has one meaning - this is clear to everyone: strong, tough, inevitable, irresistible. Iron not only is steel softer, iron is “softer” phonetically. Steel has only two syllables - and even, if you think about it, one. Be gathered into a fist, don’t get carried away, act tough, tougher, even tougher! - this is the meaning that this pseudonym carried. The complexity and romanticism of Koba were discarded as not meeting the new national and historical conditions.

I. V. Dzhugashvili began to sign with a new pseudonym "TO. Stalin", starting in January 1913. Thus, the first serious major theoretical work, “Marxism and the National Question,” was signed.

Stalin allowed himself to keep only one initial from the pseudonym “Koba” "TO". It served as a “link” with the previous period of activity, and as a “signal” to friends, and simply as a “memorable sign” for oneself, a memory that one stage in life had been passed.

At the beginning of the 20s, in the party environment and especially among the intelligentsia, there was a widespread opinion that “Stalin” is a simple translation into Russian of the Georgian root of his surname - "Juga", which supposedly means "steel". This belief was confirmed on the Georgian side. Many major Georgian intellectuals, academics, writers, in their private conversations with their Moscow and Leningrad colleagues, often confirmed this version: “Yes, “juga” in Georgian, or rather in ancient Georgian, means “steel”, “damask steel”.

However, this is not only not true, but is also an outright fabrication., which has no factual or philological basis. The fact is that modern Georgians themselves simply do not know what the word “juga” means, because the word is very ancient. It seems to sound Georgian, but its meaning has simply been lost. In such cases, they reason something like this: “The devil knows what it means. They say “steel”, so people seem to think so, so let it be “steel”.

The Georgian word “juga” also belongs to this type of “forgotten” words. And it doesn’t mean “steel” at all. "Juga" is a very ancient pagan Georgian word with a Persian connotation, common during the period of Iranian rule over Georgia, and it just means a name. The meaning, like many names, is not translatable. Name like name like Russian Ivan. Therefore, Dzhugashvili means simply "son of Juga" and nothing else.

The Mystery of Leopard Skin

Soon after the baby arrived Soso(as Joseph Vissarionovich was affectionately called in childhood) at school, namely, in 1889, when Joseph was 10 years old, a significant event took place for that time in cultural life Georgia. An unusual for that time edition of Shota Rustaveli’s work “Leopard Skin” appeared in Tiflis, translated into five languages.

It is not known whether Dzhugashvili’s student could have seen this publication then or a little later, but it is known that when he was 15-16 years old, Soso came up with the idea of ​​supplementing his education by ... reading books in ... second-hand book stores, standing for a long time at the counter immersed in reading supposedly " the book under consideration.

When this trick was discovered and he was almost banned from bookstores, young Dzhugashvili came up with another trick: he began renting books from the store for reading, paying 10 kopecks. per day. But he did not read these books, but persuaded several friends to collectively rewrite them. Two people copied it at once - each one a page, sitting on both sides of an open book on the table. This technique speeded up rewriting so much that friends managed to rewrite a fairly thick book costing 3 rubles in three days, and, therefore, it cost them only 30 kopecks. (for three), i.e. ten times cheaper. The manuscripts were carefully intertwined and in this way relatively a short time Soso has compiled a fairly decent library. When he was expelled from the seminary and began working at the observatory, this “library” was kept in his room. Later, when Joseph Dzhugashvili went illegal (1901), the library was distributed among friends, but they continued to use it together.

Among the books in this “library”, undoubtedly, there should have been a volume by Shota Rustaveli. In any case, it is known that Dzhugashvili met "Vephis kaosani", as it was called in Georgian "The Knight in Tiger Skin", at least between 1895 - 1901 Since Tiflis 1889 edition was the closest in time, and the St. Petersburg editions dating back to 1841, 1846, 1860 were practically unavailable in Tiflis, and new editions of Rustaveli’s poem appeared only when Stalin was no longer in Georgia, i.e. in 1903, 1913 and 1914, then the only opportunity for Stalin remained to get acquainted with the work of Georgian medieval classics or Georgian edition text 1880, or publication closer to his time 1889, which was also released in a much larger circulation. The latest edition is supported by the fact that Stalin always quoted the most popular sayings of Rustaveli in his works and in oral speech, usually on Russian language!

One of Stalin’s favorites was, for example, an aphorism often repeated by Rustaveli himself, and, apparently, attached to himself: "My life is as ruthless as a beast". Stalin remembered him especially often after the suicide of his wife, N.S. Alliluyeva. Very early, already in the period 1905 - 1907, and even more so later, the equally famous words of Rustaveli became the guiding principle of life and struggle for Stalin: “A close friend who turns out to be an enemy is more dangerous than a friend”. They explain to us much more and more truthfully all of Stalin’s activities.

In 1936 - 1937 solemnly celebrated 750th anniversary of Shota Rustaveli. There was everything that was required in such cases. However, at the exhibition of all published books “The Knight in the Skin of Tigers” There was only one edition missing - 1889. Why?

And the point was this. On the title page of the 1889 edition., hidden in honor of the 750th anniversary in the distant museum storerooms, it read:

And then the reason for the removal of this particular publication from exhibitions in honor of the 750th anniversary became clear.

Indeed, the appearance of the name of some pre-revolutionary translator of Stalinsky, and even on a Georgian poem, in Stalin era, in the era of the Stalin Constitution, if alive, it would have been at least strange and shocking, and in fact simply defiant for millions of Soviet people who were accustomed to seeing Stalin as the one and only leader, with his only surname in the country. Such a “phenomenon” would be unpleasantly offensive to everyone’s ears, and could become a source of dissemination of the most incredible and absurd tales, the less solid, the more ignorant the people who spread them could be.

Therefore, all protective measures were met with full understanding among literary critics, historians and bibliographers, for these were smart, honest and disciplined people of the thirties.

Such a “ban” was quite understandable, and according to the beliefs of the 30s, it was completely justified and even extremely necessary from a large, state point of view. For nothing can be shaken, nothing can be turned into a toy or “sensation” in state shrines, so as not to introduce unnecessary, but inevitable doubts and hesitations, if the whole country really wants to care about state peace and good.

If there is no very fact of the presence of such a book before people’s eyes, then there will be no problem of rumors, anecdotes, etc. Therefore, the book published in 1889 was temporarily put away in storage, but, of course, it was preserved in the collections.

But there was another side to this phenomenon, which at that time remained completely outside the attention of scientists. It didn't occur to anyone, What exactly surname Stalinsky and served as the basis for the choice of a pseudonym by Joseph Dzhugashvili. And Stalin, giving the order to conceal the 1889 edition, was primarily concerned that the “secret” of his choice of his pseudonym would not be revealed. (Briefly about Stalinsky. This is the son of an exiled Polish officer, whose real name is Khrustalinsky or Kristalinsky. The son “discarded” the first three letters.)

Thus, even the “Russian” pseudonym, specifically intended for activities in Russia, turned out to be closely connected with Georgia, the Caucasus, its culture and with the memories of childhood and youth for Stalin.

Stalin remained a romantic at heart in 1912. This is beyond doubt. But he had already learned to chain his heart, his feelings in an impenetrable steel shell, for life had taught him to hide his "I", or more precisely, not to reveal yourself to others. Too many disappointments were associated with the increased youthful Caucasian emotionality and frankness. He suffered too many blows - both personal and party in this regard. But he endured everything. Survived everything. And he came out of the fight hardened - like good damask steel. He realized that to succeed in the political struggle one must be able not to open to the outside world, even to friends, your feelings, mind and heart. That's more true. No one should penetrate the holy of holies of his soul - neither a friend nor a beloved woman. And no one should ever assume that he steel alias has some connection with his romantic youth and serves as its distant and hidden echo.

Based on all this, Stalin decided from now on to resort to yet another means of masking his uneradicated "romance" - to outwardly rude behavior, which gradually, and at critical moments, sometimes became simply rude, and attracted the attention of his party comrades, and Lenin personally, who, not understanding the reasons for this phenomenon, that is, without guessing about the hidden motives of this “ “masks,” which had become second nature, treated this trait of Stalin’s character with regret and condemnation, since, from their point of view, it did not make him popular, much less the party.

But Stalin had a different view on this matter and was more focused on the masses, on the ideas about the norms of behavior of the “superiors” among, so to speak, a less intelligent environment, among the “subordinates.” He believed that he understood the psychology of the Russian people. No wonder, after the Great Patriotic War, he frankly called “patience” - main feature Russian national character.

Thus, appeared on January 1, 1913 not only a new political figure in the revolutionary movement of Russia - Stalin- but also ceased to exist, "disappeared" old party comrade, "cheerful guy Koba".

After his 33rd birthday, Stalin significantly changed his behavior and began to acquire, as we would now say, a “new image” as secretary of the Russian Bureau of the Party Central Committee. Most importantly, he became even more restrained and even less inclined than before to reveal his inner feelings to others.

The mystery of Stalin's birth date

Official date of birth, according to all reference books, encyclopedias and documents, it is considered December 21, 1879(December 9, 1879 old style).

However, according to metric book of the Gori Assumption Cathedral Church, which registered the fact of Stalin’s birth, it is indicated that “the peasants Vissarion Ivanovich Dzhugashvili and his wife Ekaterina Gavrilovna had a son, Joseph - December 6, 1878, who was baptized on December 17, in the same church".

Finally, there is with his own hand a questionnaire filled out by Stalin with questions about his biography, addressed to him by the Swedish newspaper Folkets Dagblad Politiken in 1920, where he himself wrote the date of his birth - 1878 This, by the way, the only document, where the date is stamped by Stalin's hand. In all other cases, in the materials and questionnaires of the party congresses, starting from the 6th, in party cards, in the lists of members of the Central Committee, etc., Stalin’s date of birth is stamped everywhere by the hand of the corresponding secretary, registrar, or assistant, and everywhere it is only 1879.

Let's stop at the birthday party. The metric book states December 6, 1878 This is a holiday for the Orthodox, the day of St. Nicholas. Since this holiday was one of the most revered and prominent, it would be impossible to confuse its day. However, in official documents, since 1918, another day appears - 9th December according to the old style, from which the date is counted 21 December, as an official birthday according to the New Style. It's clear that December 9 is a date that appeared as a result of a typo, moreover, a typo made in the institution, and in the presence of a typewriter. Such a situation could only exist after 1917, in one of the central Soviet institutions - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Central Committee of the RCP (b), the Council of People's Commissars and the Revolutionary Military Council of the Red Army. It was in these institutions that, when issuing this or that mandate to Stalin, they could instead "6" type "9". And since in pre-revolutionary times the party did not pay much attention to birthdays, and Stalin himself never saw his own metrics in his life, then since 1922, when it was necessary to compile for the collection “Figures of the USSR and October revolution» an accurate authorized biography or provide a completely self-written autobiography, then Stalin first pointed out birthday on December 21 according to the new style, counting from December 9, i.e. from an erroneous date. It is possible that someone made this mistake from secretaries or assistants, because Stalin only ordered prepare your biography and then I reviewed and edited this text personally, paying main attention to the wording, and not taking into account that the number 21 counted according to the new style not from 6 December, and from 9 . Thus, the origin of the date December 21 is the result of a technical error or error. Moreover, this error is, in essence, insignificant, because it does not change anything. A man celebrates his birthday three days late. But when this person reaches such a social position that the whole country celebrates this date, then it is even more impossible to correct or change such a date. This is how the birthday came about - December 21st. The only person who knew that this was not so and could be dissatisfied with such a mistake was only old Keke - Ekaterina Georgievna Dzhugashvili, Stalin’s mother, but she, of course, wise from experience, did not share this “trifle” with anyone.

Let's look at something more important now discrepancy in year of birth: 1878 And 1879 . Stalin, of course, firmly remembered his metric year of birth and indicated it correctly everywhere, right up to 1920. But in party documents after 1917, 1879 appeared everywhere. This date first appeared in the materials (questionnaires) of the VI Party Congress. It is known that Stalin was prone to the mysticism of numbers. According to the Georgian-Persian account the number 5 was endowed with a magical meaning. Everything that was multiple 5 was supposed to bring happiness, or come true. IN 1917 first came fifth anniversary after 1912, “years of achievement” for Stalin. Stalin believed that in 1917 there would not only be a revolution, but also that it would succeed and would certainly win. And when this really happened, he became even more confident in his Marxist knowledge and conclusions, and in his faith in happy high five.

In this regard, he mentally looked over the entire path traveled before the revolution, comparing it with "five-year plans". IN 1889 the publication “Vephis tkaosani” appeared, which was destined to help him choose a “strong” pseudonym, and at that time he was smooth 10 years. IN 1899 he was expelled from the seminary and he became a professional revolutionary, and at that time he turned smooth 20 years. Hence, It is much more correct to count from 1879., and not formally since 1878. For only a few days at the end of December separate him from 1879, and if not for an accident, and his mother would have carried him to term for another week, then he would have been born both formally and actually in 1879. After all, in fact, his life began not with the almost completely past 1878, but with the beginning of 1879. That is why he always cited only this date in Russia, and after 1917 he decided to finally adhere to it as real, and not “dogmatic”, which was 1878. And when, contrary to the rule he had already accepted, in 1920 he indicated 1878 g., then this was done because the date was indicated for abroad, where, as Stalin knew very well, terribly bureaucratic and formal views dominated and where a departure from the date in metrics would be considered sensational.

Thus, we see that there is a completely clear, understandable, logical and plausible explanation for why the official date of birth was indicated in the USSR as 1879, and not 1878, as in the metrics, and for what reasons Stalin himself “corrected” this date.

(Based on materials from the work of V.V. Pokhlebkin “The Great Pseudonym”)

Born Joseph Dzhugashvili, during his life he received many colorful epithets, a title and a huge number of party nicknames. He himself became the author of more than 32 pseudonyms. The article is devoted to one of them, which remained in history as Stalin’s party nickname.

Biography pages

The pre-revolutionary part of the life of the future leader has been studied quite little. Some historians even have discrepancies regarding the date of his birth. The generally accepted date is December 1879. There are also disputes over nationality. Some people call Stalin a Georgian, others an Ossetian. The birthplace of I. Stalin was the city of Gori, which belonged to the Tiflis province.

The future leader came from a rather poor family, was not tall and physical strength. Contemporaries claim that throughout his life he carried a dislike for his strong and tall comrades-in-arms, and had a secretive and rather vindictive character. Not being able to lead in boyish brawls, he still strove for leadership, using his stubbornness and erudition.

39 years of Stalin’s life passed under the “old regime”, and they are described in extremely contradictory ways. Some believe: Stalin's first party nickname is Soso, which comes from his name. But this is not entirely true. This is what his comrades called him diminutively in childhood, and at the initial stage of revolutionary activity the name was used as a pseudonym. Koba is Stalin's party nickname, which first appeared in 1904. This fact is confirmed by O. Edelman, the author of the most complete study about the leader.

The beginning of revolutionary activity

The young man received his education first at an Orthodox school, and then at the Tiflis Theological Seminary. It was within its walls that he began to study Marxist works, becoming an underground revolutionary. Without graduating from the seminary, Stalin worked as a tutor, becoming increasingly involved in propaganda activities. In the 1900s, he met V. Lenin and other revolutionaries: M. Tskhakaya, V. Molotov, S. Ordzhonikidze.

Among the first revolutionary events, in which the future leader was noted, was a demonstration in Batumi (1902). Stalin became one of its organizers, after which he was arrested and sent into exile in the Irkutsk province. This was the first arrest from which Dzhugashvili managed to escape. It was then that Stalin’s nickname “Koba” appeared. What does this nickname mean?

Origin of the nickname

Why did nicknames appear at all? They provided the necessary secrecy. Illegal immigrants often had to use false passports, calling themselves fictitious names. It was for this reason - conspiratorial - that revolutionaries could simultaneously use several nicknames: one was needed for communication among underground workers, the other was an author's pseudonym, the rest - for one-time communication in order to hide the main one. A completely different nickname could be used at the party congress. This was necessary to make it more difficult for the gendarmerie to identify an underground fighter operating in the region with an author of articles in political periodicals and a participant in a party forum.

The Transcaucasian underground recognized Koba on the eve of the 1905 revolution. Invented given name Stalin himself. The nickname Koba is associated with the book “The Patricide,” authored by Alexander Kazbegi. The plot is dedicated to the struggle of the mountaineers for their freedom. The undaunted Koba was one of the heroes of the story, a kind of peasant Robin Hood, who became the favorite character of the future leader. Soon he began signing articles with this name. He was also recognized by his signature: “K...”, K.” And since 1910, the surname Stalin was added to the letter “K.”

New party nickname

The country recognized Stalin in 1912. The promotion of the formidable pseudonym began with an article published in the Sotsial-Democrat publication a year later. Why did the future leader think about a new nickname? The previous one was suitable for the southern region, but when reaching the all-Russian level, something different was required.

In his opinion, the pseudonym should have been combined with Lenin. Edelman has a version that Stalin came to the nickname gradually. At first he called himself Stephin in honor of the revolutionary woman with whom he was in love. Her name was Stefania Petrovskaya. After her betrayal, he called himself Solin or Salin. He wanted to keep the initials "K.S." The addition of one letter made the last name sonorous and quite formidable, which stuck with him for all subsequent years.

The reader will be interested to know:

• The literary character of "The Patricide" did not take the nickname Koba out of thin air. This is a transformation of the Persian name belonging to the kings. Kavad I ruled Persia in the 5th-6th centuries. He went down in history as the conqueror of Georgia, who made the city of Tiflis the capital of the province. By the way, he was essentially an adherent of communist ideas, formulated much later.
• Koba, Stalin's party nickname, was used by his closest associates until recently. Only those closest to him could address him this way.
• There is another point of view on the appearance of the nickname. It is less romantic and is connected with the fact that Kob Stalin was named after him in prison. In criminal jargon it meant "indomitable."

In the article you can see photographs of the young Dzhugashvili at the dawn of revolutionary activity.

Historian Olga Edelman told why revolutionaries got their party nicknames, how they came up with them, and how Koba turned into.

Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky - people who bore these names are very familiar to us. But we rarely remember that not one of them was born with such an entry in their passport, because all of these are pseudonyms.

However, they became so entrenched in their bearers that famous revolutionaries remained in history under fictitious names: school textbooks are full of them, they are engraved on monuments, and, in the end, they are the names of streets and cities.

IN AND. Lenin and I.V. Stalin in Gorki. 1922

But why did Dzhugashvili become Stalin, and Ulyanov - Lenin? Did the Bolsheviks only need intricate nicknames for secrecy? Who were the role models for future leaders and whose names did they borrow? Olga Edelman, Candidate of Historical Sciences, leading specialist of the State Archive of the Russian Federation, spoke about this and much more in an interview with the History.RF portal.

To confuse the gendarmes

- Olga, tell us why revolutionaries in Russia needed nicknames?

Nicknames were needed for conspiracy. For the same reason - conspiratorial - a revolutionary could simultaneously use several nicknames: one was used for communication in the underground environment, another served as an author's pseudonym, some more for one-time communication, so as not to “expose” the main one, another one was used at a party congress, etc. etc. They were deliberately separated to make it more difficult for the gendarmes to identify an underground worker operating in a certain place with a participant in the congress and the author of articles in party periodicals. In addition, illegal immigrants used fake or other people’s passports, so sometimes they called themselves a false name.

L.D. Trotsky at a military parade

Why did many former underground fighters keep their pseudonyms even when they no longer needed to hide from the police? This is what the most famous party leaders did: Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky...

After the revolution, those pseudonyms by which a person became known were preserved, and most often these were author's pseudonyms. Lenin and Trotsky became widely known as publicists, so they preferred to keep these names as surnames. Thus, “Lenin” is, first of all, an author’s pseudonym, and this is how Vladimir Ulyanov signed articles. Similarly - Maxim Gorky, whose real name and patronymic (Alexei Maksimovich) were completely stuck together with his pseudonym surname.

From Soso to Stalin

Tell us a little about Stalin. After all, the leader of the peoples did not always use this surname? What other pseudonyms did Joseph Vissarionovich have?

Joseph Dzhugashvili on early stages of his illegal work was simply called Soso. This is a friendly, homely form of the name Joseph, that is, something like Kolya and Sasha for Russian names. Then he came up with the nickname Koba, by which he became known in the Transcaucasian party underground (Koba, the hero of Alexander Kazbegi’s adventure story “The Patricide”, is considered a favorite literary character Stalin. - Note ed.). Lived with false passports in the name of Kayos Nizheradze and so on. After the revolution of 1905, when relatively many freedoms appeared, he began to sign articles “Koba”, “Ko...”, “K.” - readers guessed who wrote it. Since 1910, Dzhugashvili began to sign articles with variants - “K. St.", "K.S."

I.V. Stalin. 1902

- When did Koba finally turn into Stalin?

Nickname "K. Stalin” gained a foothold only at the beginning of 1913, shortly before Dzhugashvili’s arrest and exile to Turukhansk. At the 4th and 5th congresses of the RSDLP he was “Ivanovich”, and in St. Petersburg in 1912 the party nickname was Vasily, Vasiliev, and only a narrow circle knew that “Vasily” was “Koba”.

Romantic image of a fighter

I heard that sometimes the party nickname was a kind of key to the code and was used in secret correspondence. This is true?

I haven’t seen them used as a key to a cipher, and it’s unlikely that such a thing has happened. But it is true that party nicknames were used in correspondence. Moreover, sometimes Lenin and Krupskaya used two nicknames in the same letter, so that the gendarmes would see double. For example, in a letter addressed to “Vasiliev”, instructions were given to “Vaska” in the third person, as if he were another person. Or a letter to Vladimir Ivanovich Nevsky (Russian revolutionary, Bolshevik, historian. - Note ed.) Lenin addressed to him real name Krivobokov also mentioned Spitsa in the third person - one of Nevsky’s nicknames (Nevsky is also a nickname).

IN AND. Nevsky

- On what basis were pseudonyms chosen?

Some pseudonyms have a distinct “working” style: Kamenev, Molotov, and even Stalin. In addition, there is a reference to the romantic image of a strong, unbending fighter. Trotsky assured in his memoirs that he came up with this surname by chance, when, during his escape from exile, he needed to enter some name into a false passport (according to most historians, Leiba Bronstein chose a pseudonym for himself after Nikolai Trotsky, the senior warden of the Odessa prison where he was imprisoned in 1898. - Note ed.). From the very beginning of his participation in the revolutionary movement, Georgy Ordzhonikidze used the nickname Sergo, and Stepan Shaumyan - Suren and Surenin, in both cases it is just a name. There is a legend about the origin of the nickname Kamo, going back to himself, as if at the beginning of his career Soso Dzhugashvili nicknamed him that way, because Semyon Ter-Petrosyan spoke Russian poorly and once said “kamo” instead of “to whom”. “Oh, you “kamo”,” Soso teased him.

It is worth noting that aliases for famous people- quite a common thing, and in different times they were widely used by writers, musicians, actors and other representatives of creative professions. Moreover, in most cases, pseudonyms have become so attached to their owners that many generations of fans of their talent perceive only these names, and some are even sure that they were given at birth.

L.D. Trotsky, V.I. Lenin, L.B. Kamenev

Meanwhile, such famous poets as Anna Akhmatova, Sasha Cherny, prose writer Mark Aldanov, writer and screenwriter Ilya Ilf, poet and playwright Mikhail Svetlov and many others whose names you know are all pseudonyms. They can be perceived in different ways, since pseudonyms are always masks, and their purposes vary depending on the goals of the bearer. Sometimes this mask is designed to hide some secret sides of a personality or obscure part of its history, sometimes to embellish the truth, create an atmosphere of mystery, sometimes to emphasize some key qualities of a person with the help of which he wants to stand out. One way or another, each person has the right to choose a name for himself, under which he will become known to his contemporaries and descendants. While the name given at birth remains with him forever.

In total, Stalin had more than thirty pseudonyms, each of which had its own meaning and history. It is believed that Dzhugashvili began to use the surname Stalin in connection with the bright associative series of hard and resistant metal. Steel is rigid and flexible, a steel rod is what has become an integral part of the historical image of the great political figure, he is an unbending revolutionary.

Fascism as a tool of the reactionary bourgeoisie

As an ideological and political movement, it arose in Western Europe under the influence of the crisis of bourgeois society in the first decades of the last century. The emergence of fascist ideology became possible only after capitalism entered the last - imperialist - stage of its development.

Fascism completely denies the liberal and democratic values ​​of which the bourgeoisie is so proud.

Classic fascism was given by one of the leaders of the Communist International, Georgi Dimitrov. He called fascism an open and terror-based dictatorship of the most reactionary circles of finance capital. This is not a power that resides over classes. It does not represent the interests of the entire bourgeoisie, but only that part of it that is closely connected with the financial oligarchy.

Unlike Stalinism, which to some extent guarded the interests of the proletariat, fascism set itself the goal of dealing with the workers and the most progressive representatives of other sectors of society. What both regimes have in common is that both fascism and Stalinism are based on total terror and the merciless suppression of dissent.

If during Stalin's rule there were partial retreats from classical Marxist ideology, then fascism in all its forms is an ardent and open enemy of communist ideas. Therefore, it is impossible to put an equal sign between these phenomena.

Video on the topic

As a rule, a person has 5 physical qualities - strength, endurance, agility, speed and flexibility. The last one is almost the most important of all of the above. So why is it important to be flexible? Let's try to find the answer to this question.

Instructions

Surely everyone has had the feeling: it seems like nothing has happened all day, but the feeling of tiredness is still present. As a rule, our muscles have 2 states - contraction and relaxation. And when a person is always in the first state, that is, in tension, then that strange feeling of fatigue arises. This is because when muscles contract, they therefore need energy to maintain their working condition. Hence, they take all the last energy that we have. This is why you need to do all kinds of stretches. They will help release lactic acid, which is found in the muscles and keeps us in constant tension and stress. Well, this ultimately affects your health.

Also, stretching is that it helps a person develop movements. This is that he will be able to learn any new movement for the body much faster than an inflexible person. The thing is that overstrained muscles distract the brain in the most literal sense of the word. They give extra unnecessary signals, and he, accordingly, loses the picture of the new exercise. This is what stretching is for, so that the brain does exactly what is asked of it.

Contracted muscles exhaust a person’s consciousness much faster. This happens because they constantly signal to the nervous system that they are overstressed. Stretching, as a rule, gives complete relaxation to all muscles, and they cease to distract and focus attention on themselves. Thanks to this, not only the excess load on the muscles is removed, but also the endurance of our nerves and concentration of attention improves.

No matter how strange it may sound, the vessels have their own muscles, thanks to which they help drive blood throughout the body. But do not forget that the vessels consist of two components. Therefore, in addition to muscles, they also have an elastic, so to speak, component. So, when blood is directed, for example, from the heel to the thigh, it first moves through the muscle fibers of the blood vessels, then gets stuck in special elastic pockets. After which it begins to move again when these pockets return to their shape. If the elastic component is poorly developed, varicose veins may occur. Stretching not only helps to make blood vessels elastic, but also relieves excess stress from the heart.

For hypertensive patients, stretching will help normalize blood pressure. It turns out that a person who does not exercise at all has a lot of spare vessels in his body. Therefore, if you use them by stretching, then blood will flow not only through the old vessels, but also through new ones, thereby increasing blood pressure.

Typically, stretching helps move blood throughout the body. And if so, it means that it supplies blood to all other internal organs, which has a beneficial effect on the functioning of the body as a whole.

Video on the topic

The role of Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin in the creation of the state of Israel, proclaimed in 1948, was certainly one of the most important. According to many historians, journalists and publicists, it was Stalin who, when creating the Israeli state in 1947, provided it with serious support at the UN.

After the end of World War II, Jews, who were subjected to severe persecution in many European countries during Nazi Germany, did not want to return to where their loved ones were killed, robbed and burned in. The entire liberal world community sincerely sympathized with them and believed that the restoration of the Jewish state in Palestine should become a natural process.

However, the question of the future fate of the Jews and Palestine was decided by British and politicians, public opinion had no influence on their decisions. The absolute majority of Westerners opposed the emergence of an independent Jewish state in the world. politicians. Therefore, almost all researchers of this issue agree that it was Stalin and Soviet diplomacy who played decisive role in the creation of Israel.

According to the Bible, the Land of Israel was bequeathed to the Jews by God in order to become the Promised Land - all the sacred places of the Jewish people are located here.

Goals of Stalin and the USSR

Close cooperation between Zionist politicians led by Ben-Gurion and the Soviet leadership began in the pre-war years; the first meeting took place in 1940 on Soviet territory in London. After the war it continued. The Middle East, under the threat of a new world war, has become strategically important region. Realizing that it would not be possible to get support from the Arabs, Soviet political leaders in general and Stalin in particular saw the prospect of increasing influence in this region only through the Jews.

In fact, the fate of Israel was of interest to Stalin, who was guided in matters of foreign policy by personal ambitions to expand the international influence of the USSR insofar as. The support of Jewish leaders was primarily aimed at weakening British influence and preventing the expansion of US influence in the Middle East. The Soviet leadership, through its actions, tried to create conditions under which they would become dependent on the USSR. In addition, one of the most important tasks facing Stalin was ensuring the security of the southern borders Soviet Union.

Actions taken

In order to “squeeze” Great Britain out of Palestine, which has a mandate to govern part of the territories of the Middle East, Soviet leadership made every possible move. In the second half of the 1940s, Palestinian Jews actually fought against England, where they received material and moral support from the USSR. When the question of placing a huge number of Jewish refugees on the territories of European countries became acute, the Soviet Union made a proposal to send flows of immigrants to Palestine, which did not suit Great Britain.

Under the current conditions, Palestine became a serious problem for London, which led to the decision of the British government to refer the issue to the UN. This was the first victory of the Soviet and Zionist leadership on the path to creating a Jewish state. The next step was for Soviet diplomats to formulate the opinion of the international community about the urgent need for the creation of Israel. The USSR foreign policy department coped with this task successfully.

After Great Britain introduced the Palestinian issue to the UN General Assembly, London stepped aside, and further struggle for the fate of these territories unfolded between the USSR and the USA. As a result of the sessions, the US political leadership was unable to outplay the Soviet diplomats and win over the majority of the states participating in the meetings to their side. In addition, in the decisive vote, 5 countries of the Soviet bloc provided the required number of votes, which resulted in a UN mandate for the creation of the State of Israel. On May 14, 1948, the day before the end of the British Mandate for Palestine, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the creation of an independent Jewish state on the territory allocated according to the UN plan.

The day after the proclamation of the creation of an independent Jewish state, the Arab League declared war on Israel, called in Israel the “War of Independence.”

The role of the Soviet Union and Stalin personally in ensuring the required number of votes was decisive. The Arab countries were extremely outraged by the position of the USSR and categorically did not accept the UN decision. Stalin was no longer interested in the Arab reaction; now his goal was to do everything possible to quickly join the future independent Jewish state among its allies.

Sources:

• Why did Stalin create Israel or Stalin's Jewish divisions.

People are not born cynics, they become cynics. And this is due to modern foundations and traditions, which are beginning to harm common sense. A cynic is a person who is disillusioned with the social mechanisms of life and has lost all trust in certain authorities.

Who are the cynics?

Cynical people are realists who vehemently despise pessimism and optimism. They accept everything as it comes. They are never sad and never happy if the reason for this is some little thing. And a “trifle” for them can be anything: cynics are not worried about the death of people - there are still many of them on Earth. Cynical people are not worried about the death of children, since they are just another human offspring who have not yet achieved anything. According to psychologists, only adults and psychologically mature individuals can be called cynics.

Such people have their own point of view on the world, which distinguishes them from the absolute majority. The psychology of a cynic is such that everything around is for sale, and spiritual and moral values ​​never existed. Cynics never value anything: everything lost can be easily returned, but there are no irreplaceable things and people. This is exactly how these individuals reason. In principle, their behavior can be explained: a cynic is a person who is disillusioned with life or with people, and therefore communicates with them only with harsh calculations.

There is also back side medals. Life is very difficult for cynical people. The fact is that they see right through some people, do not hesitate to speak about them, voice this or that inconvenient truth, etc. All this leads to the fact that the cynic encounters resistance from the majority of those around him and loses the ability to adequately critical thinking and looks like a real outcast in their eyes. Psychologists give such “outcasts” a corresponding definition. Princeton University professor Charles Issawi calls such people “intolerable cynics.”

Why do people become cynics?

Any character traits of a future personality are formed in childhood. Children and teenagers are very susceptible to certain actions of others: to insults, to betrayal, to humiliation, to coldness. Of course, at first there are no inclinations of cynicism in a child, but as soon as he is faced with a serious problem at least once, he begins to isolate himself from everyone around him, trying to prove to everyone that he cares about absolutely nothing. A child in childhood tries to hide his own pain, demonstrating his indifference.

Already in adolescence, some of the future cynics are deprived of certain human feelings, inherent in the majority. For example, they may have a complete lack of sentimentality because they believe that it simply dumbs people down. Future cynics do not feel envy and evaluate the surrounding reality objectively, i.e. not with the heart and soul, but with the brain. An already formed cynic basically does not adhere to any religion. Psychologists note one curious fact: cynical people identify Jesus Christ with themselves, thinking that he is the same cynic as they are.