Literature of the Middle Ages My friend! You already know that any national literature is born on the basis of folklore, using its aesthetic principles and artistic techniques. The literature of European countries is also based on the folklore traditions of ancient tribes:

3. Diaries at the turn of two life eras and mature psychological age Upon completion of the individuation process, the psychological function of the diary is transformed. The diary reflects those changes in the author’s consciousness that are caused by his new social, professional or

Literature in Latin served as a bridge between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. But the basis of what is new that has appeared in European culture and determined its fundamental difference from the culture of Antiquity, is not scientific literature, but folklore of peoples, appeared on the arena of history as a result of the migration of peoples and the death of ancient civilization.

Moving on to this topic, it is necessary to dwell specifically on such a theoretical problem as the fundamental difference between literature and folklore.

Literature and folklore. There is a fundamental the difference between folklore epic and literary epic, first of all the novel. M.M. Bakhtin identifies three main differences between an epic and a novel: “... the subject of an epic serves national epic past, “absolute past”, in the terminology of Goethe and Schiller, the source of the epic is national legend(A Not personal experience and the free fiction growing on its basis), the epic world is separated from modernity, those. from the time of the singer (the author and his listeners), absolute epic distance"(Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel // Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and "aesthetics. - M., 1975. - P. 456 (the term “epic” the author denotes a heroic epic)). An idea in a literary work expresses the author’s attitude towards what is depicted. She is individual. In a heroic epic, where there is no individual author, only a general heroic idea can be expressed, which is, therefore, the idea of ​​a genre (at most, a cycle or plot), and not a separate work. Let's call this idea of ​​a genre an epic idea.

The rhapsode does not give a personal assessment of the person portrayed both for objective reasons (“absolute epic distance” does not allow him to discuss “the first and highest,” “fathers,” “ancestors”), and for subjective reasons (the rhapsodist is not the author, not the writer, but the keeper of the legend). It is no coincidence that a number of assessments are put into the mouths of the heroes of the epic. Consequently, the glorification of characters or their exposure, even love or hatred, belongs to the entire people - the creator of the heroic epic.

However, it would be a mistake, based on the above considerations, to conclude that the rhapsode’s activities are uncreative. The narrator was not allowed freedom (i.e., the author's principle), but at the same time accuracy was not required from him. Folklore is not learned by heart, so deviation from what was heard is not perceived as a mistake (as would be the case when transmitting literary work), but as improvisation. Improvisation- a mandatory beginning in the heroic epic. Clarification of this feature leads to the conclusion that the epic has a different system artistic means than in literature, it is determined by the principle of improvisation and initially acts not as an artistic, but as a mnemonic system that allows you to retain huge texts in memory and, therefore, is built on repetitions, constant motifs, parallelism, similar images, similar actions etc. Later it is revealed and artistic value this system, because the gradual universalization of the musical motif (recitative) leads to the restructuring of prosaic speech into poetic speech, the systematization of assonance and alliteration first generates assonant consonance or alliterative verse, and then rhyme, repetition begins to play a large role in highlighting the most important moments narratives, etc.

The idea of ​​​​the difference between folklore and literary systems of artistic means (though not through the concept of improvisation) came to the idea back in 1946 V.Ya. Propp. In the article “Specifics of Folklore” he wrote: “... Folklore has means specific to it (parallelisms, repetitions, etc.) ... the usual means of poetic language (comparisons, metaphors, epithets) are filled with a completely different content than in literature" (Propp V.Ya. Folklore and reality. - M., 1976. - P. 20.). So, epic works folklore (heroic epic) and literature (for example, the novel) are based on completely different laws and should be read and studied differently.

Two groups of monuments of the European heroic epic of the Middle Ages. Monuments of the heroic epic of the Middle Ages, which have come down to us in the records of learned clerics since the 10th century, are usually divided into two groups: epic of the early Middle Ages(Irish epic, Icelandic epic, English epic monument “Beowulf”, etc.) and epic of the era of developed feudalism(French heroic epic “The Song of Roland”, the earliest record is the so-called Oxford copy, ca. 1170; German heroic epic “The Song of the Nibelungs”, record ca. 1200; Spanish heroic epic “The Song of My Cid”, record circa 1140 - perhaps an original work, but based on ancient Germanic legends; etc.). Each of the monuments has its own characteristics, both in content (for example, the cosmogonic ideas of the northern peoples of Europe preserved only in the Icelandic epic) and in form (for example, the combination of poetry and prose in the Irish epic). But the identification of two groups of monuments is associated with more common feature- the way they reflect reality. In the heroic epic The early Middle Ages reflects not a specific historical event, but an entire era(although individual events and even characters had a historical basis), while the monuments of developed feudalism reflect transformed according to the laws of folklore, but a specific historical event.

Mythology of the northern peoples of Europe in the Icelandic epic. Systemic ideas of the ancient northern peoples about the origin of the world only survived in the Icelandic epic. The oldest surviving recording of this epic is called "Elder Edda" by analogy with the Edda - a kind of a textbook for poets, written by the Icelandic skald (poet) Snorri Sturlusono (1178-1241) in 1222-1225. and now called "Younger Edda". The 10 mythological and 19 heroic songs of the Elder Edda, as well as the retellings of Snorri Sturluson (1st part of the Younger Edda), contain a wealth of material on Scandinavian cosmogony.

“At the beginning of time // there was in the world // no sand, no sea, // no cold waters, // there was no earth yet // and no firmament, // the abyss gaped, the grass did not grow,” the song says “ Divination of the völva” (i.e. prophetess, sorceress). The frost that filled the abyss from Niflheim (“the dark world”), under the influence of sparks from Muspelsheim (“the fiery world”), began to melt, and from it arose the jotun (giant) Ymir, and then the cow Audumla, who fed him with her milk. From the salty stones that Audumla licked, Buri arose, the father of Bor, who, in turn, became the father of the gods Odin (the supreme deity of the ancient Germans), Vili and Ve. In the “Speeches of Grimnir” it is reported that these gods subsequently killed Ymir, and from his flesh the earth arose, from his blood - the sea, from his bones - the mountains, from the skull - the sky, from his hair - the forest, from his eyelashes - the steppe of Midgard (lit., " middle enclosed space”, i.e. the middle world, human habitat). In the center of Midgard grows the world tree Yggdrasil, connecting the earth with Asgard - the seat of the Aesir (gods). The Aesir create a man from ash and a woman from alder. Warriors who die in battle with honor are carried away by the daughters of Odin, the Valkyries, to heaven, to Valhalla - Odin's palace, where there is a continuous feast. Thanks to the cunning of the evil god Loki - the personification of changeable fire - the young god Balder (a kind of Scandinavian Apollo) dies, a feud begins between the gods, Yggdrasil burns, the sky, which was supported by its crown, falls, the death of the gods leads to the return of the world to chaos.

A Christian insert is often considered to be a story about the revival of life on earth, but perhaps this is a reflection of the original idea of ​​the Germans about the cyclical development of the Universe.

Irish epic. This is an epic of the Celtic peoples, the most ancient of the surviving legends of the peoples of Northern Europe. There are about 100 songs in the Ulad cycle. Judging by some details, for example, by the fact that the good king of Ulad Conchobar is opposed by the evil sorceress Queen Medb of Connacht, who sends a disease to the Ulad warriors in order to freely capture the bull grazing in Ulad, bringing prosperity, and also by the fact that the main character of Ulad Cu Chulainn and his brother Ferdiad, who was sent by order of Medb to fight him, learned the art of war from the warrior Scathach, it can be concluded that the Ulad cycle does not reflect a specific historical event (although the war between Ulad - present-day Ulster - and Connacht actually went on from the 2nd century BC. BC to the 2nd century AD), and the whole historical era is the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy in its guardianship stage, when the power of women is associated either with past times, or with the evil principle.

French epic. "The Song of Roland" Among several hundred monuments of the French medieval heroic epic, stands out "The Song of Roland" Recorded for the first time around 1170 (so-called Oxford list), it refers to the epic of developed feudalism. It is based on a real historical event. IN 778 g. young Charlemagne, who had recently decided to recreate the Roman Empire, sent troops into Spain, which had been captured by the Moors (Arabs) since 711. The campaign was unsuccessful: after two months of hostilities it was only possible to besiege the city Zaragoza, but its defenders had unlimited supplies of water in the fortress, so it turned out to be unrealistic to starve them out, and Charles, having lifted the siege, withdrew his troops from Spain. When they pass Roncesvalles Gorges in the Pyrenees the rearguard of the troops was attacked by local tribes Basque. Three noble Franks died in the battle, of whom the chronicle names the third Prefect of the Breton March of Hruotland- the future epic Roland. The attackers scattered across the mountains, and Charles was unable to take revenge on them. With this he returned to his capital Aachen.

This event in the “Song of Roland”, as a result of folklore transformation, looks completely different: the emperor Karl, who is over two hundred years old, leads to Spain's seven-year victorious war. Only the city of Zaragoza did not surrender. In order not to shed unnecessary blood, Karl sends to the leader Moors Marsilia noble knight Ganelon. He, mortally offended by Roland, who gave this advice to Karl, negotiates, but then cheats on Karl. On the advice of Ganelon, Charles puts Roland at the head of the rearguard of the retreating troops. The rearguard is attacked by those who agreed with Ganelon Moors (“non-Christians”, not Basques - Christians) and destroy all the warriors. The last one to die ( not from wounds, but from overexertion) Roland. Charles returns with troops and destroys Moors and all "pagans"", who joined them, and then in Aachen arranges God's judgment on Ganelon. Ganelon's fighter loses the fight to Karl's fighter, which means that God is not on the side of the traitor, and he is brutally executed: they tie his hands and feet to four horses, let them gallop - and the horses tear Ganelon's body into pieces.

The problem of authorship. The text of "The Song of Roland" was published in 1823 and immediately attracted attention with its aesthetic significance. At the end of the 19th century. The outstanding French medievalist Joseph Bedier decided to find out the author of the poem, relying on the last, 4002nd line of the text: “Turold’s legends are interrupted here.” He found not one, but 12 Turolds to whom the work could be attributed. However, even before Bedier, Gaston Paris suggested that this folklore work, and after Bedier's research, the Spanish medievalist Ramon Menendez Pidal convincingly showed that the Song of Roland belongs to the “traditional” texts that do not have an individual author.

Logical inversion. Approaching The Song of Roland as work of folklore allows us to clarify contradictions that strike the modern reader. Some of them can be explained by yourself improvisational technique, other - layering of layers belonging to different eras. Some of the contradictions are explained the vaguely personal nature of the heroes’ functions(the behavior of Ganelon, Marsilius, especially Charles, who in the second part acquires the function of Roland, and in the third loses this function). But a number of Karl’s actions are not explained by the principle of combining or changing the functions of heroes. It is unclear why Charles sends Roland to the rearguard, considering Ganelon’s advice diabolical, why he mourns Roland even before the battle in the gorge and calls Ganelon a traitor. The army of one hundred thousand cries with Karl, suspecting Ganelon of treason. Or this passage: “The Great Charles is tormented and crying, // But help them, alas! I have no power to file.”

Psychological inconsistencies must be explained from two sides. Firstly, in the epic the laws of psychologism, which require authenticity in the depiction of motives and psychological reactions, have not yet been used and the contradictions were not noticeable to the medieval listener. Secondly, itself their appearance is associated with the peculiarities of epic time. To a certain extent the basis of the epic ideal is the dreams of the people, but they are transported to the past . Epic time thus appears as “the future in the past”. This type of time has a huge impact not only on the structure, but also on the very logic of the epic. Cause-and-effect relationships play a minor role in it. The main principle epic logic is "logic of the end", which we denote by the term "logical inversion" According to logical inversion, Roland died not because Ganelon betrayed him, but on the contrary, Ganelon betrayed Roland because he must die and thereby immortalize his heroic name forever. Karl sends Roland to the rearguard because the hero must die, and cries because he is endowed with knowledge of the end.

Knowledge of the end, future events by the narrator, listeners and the characters themselves is one of the manifestations of logical inversion. Events are anticipated many times; in particular, prophetic dreams and omens act as forms of anticipation. Logical inversion is also characteristic of the episode of Roland’s death. His death on the hill is depicted in tirade 168, and the motives for climbing the hill and other dying actions are reported much later, in tirade 203.

So, in “The Song of Roland” a whole system of expressing logical inversion is revealed. It should be especially noted that logical inversion completely removes the theme of rock. Not a fatal coincidence of circumstances, not the power of fate over a person, but the strict pattern of testing a character and elevating him to a heroic pedestal or depicting his inglorious death - this is the typical way of depicting reality in The Song of Roland.

I. general characteristics Middle Ages Features of the social and political development of Europe in the initial period of medieval history. The transitional nature of the era. The simultaneous existence of Latin literature and the emergence of “young” literatures. The problem of ancient tradition in medieval culture. "Dark Ages" and the Carolingian Renaissance. The role of Christianity. The authority of the church, its political and economic power. Christianity and the institution of chivalry. Theocentric worldview. The relationship between reason and faith in science and philosophy. Patristics and scholasticism. Educational development, cathedral schools and universities. Christianity and medieval art: painting, architecture, literature. Genres of clerical literature: visions, legends, apocrypha, hagiography. The problem of perception of medieval culture by our contemporaries. The specifics of the development of literature, its connection with religion, philosophy, and science. Anonymity, a different concept of authorship (functions of a medieval author, originality of a work). Literary etiquette. Functionality and class in the formation of a genre system. Periodization of medieval literature and its main directions (clerical, folk-epic, knightly, urban literature). Assessment of the Middle Ages in modern literary criticism. II. The main stages in the development of the medieval epic The role of folk art in medieval culture. Labor and ritual songs oldest form poetry. Primitive syncretism. The oral nature of the existence of folk poetry. The evolution of the medieval epic, two main stages in its history: the epic of the tribal society and the epic of the feudal era. Features of the ancestral epic. Features of the formation of the Celtic epic. Irish sagas, their keepers. Heroic (Ulad cycle, Finn cycle) and fantasy sagas. Scandinavian epic: mythological and heroic songs of the Elder Edda. Prose sagas (heroic and generic). Poetry of the skalds. The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. Heroic epic of feudal society. Movement from mythology to history, reflection of the era. Recording and literary processing (features of written literature, Christian and courtly influences). French heroic epic, main cycles of poems: the loyal vassal cycle, the baronial cycle, the Carolingian cycle. The historical basis of the “Song of Roland”. Plot and composition, image system, artistic features of the poem. Spanish heroic epic. Times of the Reconquista, Rodrigo Diaz as a national hero. Artistic originality of “Songs about my Sid”. German heroic epic. Social and political situation in Germany. Historical and mythological basis of the "Song of the Nibelungs". Connection with the poetics of knightly literature. Legend of the Nibelungs in Icelandic ancestral epic(heroic songs of the Elder Edda, Volsunga Saga) and in the German poem of the Christian feudal society. The problem of the origin of the heroic epic. Book by F.A. Wolf “Introduction to Homer”. Theories of K. Lachman, G. Paris, J. Bedier. III. Chivalric literatureXII- XIIIcenturies Medieval knighthood. Socio-political prerequisites for the development of knightly culture and its significance. Code of Courtliness. The role of Provence. Poetry of the troubadours: sources, themes, genre system (canson, sirventa, lamentation, tenson and partimen, alba, serena, pastorella), style directions (“clear” and “dark” style). A new interpretation of love. Cult of the Beautiful Lady. Biographies of troubadours. French Trouvères and German Minnesin Gers. An adventurous and psychological beginning in a courtly novel. The genesis of the chivalric romance. General characteristics of the ancient, Breton, Byzantine cycles. Groups of novels of the Breton cycle: Breton lays, novels about Tristan and Isolde, Arthurian novels, novels about the Holy Grail. IV. Medieval urban literature The era of the mature Middle Ages. Formation of a special type of urban culture. Specifics of urban literature. Urban and knightly literature. Epic genres of urban literature: fabliaux and schwanks, satirical (“The Roman of the Fox”) and allegorical (“The Roman of the Rose”) novels. Theme of Vagant poetry. Parody among vagants and features of medieval parody in general. The genesis of Western European drama, spiritual (mysteries, miracles) and secular (morality plays, soti, farces). Module 2. Pre-Renaissance and Renaissance in Italy V. Pre-Renaissance in Italy. Dante's works Italian city in the XIII - XIV centuries: economy, culture, political struggle. Development of Italian poetry. Sicilian school and troubadour lyrics. "New sweet style" in Bologna and Florence. The works of Guido Guinicelli and Guido Cavalcanti: poet-philosopher praising love-virtue. Stylnovists and the ideas of Thomas Aquinas. Dante Alighieri is a poet at the turn of two eras. Dante's worldview. “New Life”: features of medieval literature and literature of the New Time. The image of Beatrice, the ideal of platonic love. Dante's participation in the social and political life of Florence. Years of exile. Scientific and philosophical treatises “The Feast”, “On National Speech”, “On the Monarchy”. "The Divine Comedy" in the context of Dante's work. Connection with medieval literature and Renaissance trends. Allegorical meaning and composition of the poem. Architectonics of the afterlife. Depiction of hell, purgatory and heaven: main themes and images. Artistic features of the poem. Dante's poetic mastery. Dante and world literature, the meaning of the “Divine Comedy”. VI. General characteristics of the Western European Renaissance Changes in the political and economic development of Western European countries. The era of great geographical discoveries. New scientific methods of cognition. Science, philosophy, art, The role of ancient culture. The term "Renaissance". Humanism as a spiritual phenomenon. Specifics of Renaissance literature. Understanding authorship. New genre system. The problem of Renaissance realism. Utopia of the Renaissance. The growth of national differences, the development of national languages ​​and literatures. The main stages of the development of Renaissance culture. VII. Renaissance Literature in Italy Socio-economic development of Italy in the 14th–16th centuries. The main stages and evolution of the Italian Renaissance: Tre-cento, Quattrocento, Cinquicento. Francesco Petrarca is the first humanist scientist. Petrarch’s worldview, analysis of internal contradictions in the philosophical treatise “My Secret”. Historical and philological studies of Petrarch, appeal to antiquity. The poem "Africa" ​​is an attempt to create a national epic. “The Book of Songs”: connection with medieval poetry (troubadours, Sicilians, Stylnovists) and trends in Renaissance culture. Sonnet genre. Love theme of the collection. Images of Laura by Petrarch and Beatrice by Dante. Petrarch's poetic mastery. Giovanni Boccaccio and his role in the development of Renaissance humanism. Connection with folk urban culture of the late Middle Ages. Early works of Boccaccio. "Elegy of the Madonna Fiametta" - first psychological novel. The genre of the short story in "The Decameron". Sources of the collection, its composition, themes of the short stories. "The Decameron" and European Renaissance short stories. Italian humanism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Political fragmentation of Italy. Heterogeneity of the political structure of Italian states. Changes in the government system in Florence, the Medici family. Social contradictions, economic decline. Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The Rise of Italian Poetry. Petrarchist and satirical poets. Epic tradition, tales of Orlando (Ro-land) in the epic of the cantastories. "Great Morgante" by Luigi Pulci. “Roland in Love” by Matteo Boiardo and “Roland Furious” by Lodovico Ariosto. Features of the crisis of humanistic culture in the works of Torquato Tasso, his poem “Jerusalem Liberated”. Italian short stories of the 15th–16th centuries. “Novellino” by Masuccio Guardato, “Evening Meals” by Antonfrancesco Grazzini, “One Hundred Tales” by Giraldi Cintio. The work of Matteo Bandello. Italian Renaissance theater. Features of the “scientific comedy”. The works of Lodovico Ariosto and Pietro Aretino. "Mandrake" by Niccolò Machiavelli. Government activities Machiavelli, his political ethics. Work "History of Florence". The nature of power, its goals in the treatise “The Sovereign”. The birth of professional theater. "Commedia dell'arte" ("comedy of masks") and its impact on European theatrical culture. Module 3. Literature of the Renaissance in Germany, the Netherlands and France. VIII. Renaissance Literature in Germany and the Netherlands Specifics of the socio-political development of Germany in the 15th-16th centuries. Fragmentation of the German lands. Economy of “free” cities. German burghers. The Reformation, its goals and historical nature. The activities of Martin Luther. Luther's journalism, his translation of the Bible into German. Reasons for the schism of the Reformation, Thomas Münzer. Peasant war. Formation of a dualistic confessional system. German humanistic culture. Satirical orientation of literature. "Ship of Fools" by Sebastian Brunt. The history of the creation of the collection “Letters of Dark People” and the participation of Ulrich von Hutten in it. The originality of Hutten's "Dialogues". Poetry of Hans Sachs. The role of folk books in German culture. “An entertaining story about Tila Eulenspiegel” and “The story about Doctor Faustus, the famous sorcerer and warlock.” Provinces of the Netherlands within the Kingdom of Spain: economic and religious contradictions. Prerequisites for the early bourgeois revolution. The beginning of the liberation movement. Dutch culture during the Renaissance. The life and work of Erasmus of Rotterdam. "Scientific humanism". “In Praise of Stupidity”: a satirical picture of society and a philosophical view of the world. Problems of “Home Conversations”. IX. Renaissance Literature in France France in the 15th-16th centuries: features historical development countries. Economic success. Political centralization, strengthening of royal power. The years of the reign of Francis I. Franco-Italian wars of the first half of the 16th century. Reformation in France. The spread of Calvinism, the Huguenot movement. Religious wars(1562-1594) and the events of St. Bartholomew's Night (1572). Henry IV. Edict of Nantes 1598. Humanistic culture in France. Interest in classical antiquity, the traditions of Italian humanists and national identity French Renaissance. The poetry of Francois Villon is a reflection of the crisis of the medieval worldview and the beginning of the transition to the Renaissance. Early Renaissance and the circle of Margaret of Navarre. "Heptameron": connection with Italian short stories and following national traditions. Poetry of Clément Mapo. “New Amusements” and “Cymbal of the World” by Bonaventure Deperrier. Mature Renaissance and Francois Rabelais. The novel “Gargantua and Pantagruel”: the sources of the work, the plan and structure of the book. Problematics and figurative system. Humanistic ideas, the ideal of a harmonious person. The problem of satire, the correlation of the images and events of the novel with modern Rabelais reality. Features of the novel's language. The originality of Rabelais' artistic method. The grotesque-comic element of the novel, connection with folk culture. Evaluation of the novel in criticism. Conception of M.M. Bakhtin: the need for a new methodology; native species laughter culture; material-corporeal beginning of life; concepts of “carnival”, “ambivalence”, “universality of festive laughter”, “grotesque body image”; justification of the term “grotesque realism”. Late Renaissance in France. Poetry of the Pleiades. Question about the creation of a national poetic school in the “Defense and Glorification of French» Joachin du Bellay. The role of the ancient tradition and Petrarchism in the work of Pierre de Ronsard. Sonnet cycles of Ronsard (“To Cassandra”, “To Mary”, “To Helen”): the evolution of the theme and image of the beloved. The crisis of the French Renaissance. "Tragic Poems" by Agrippa d'Aubigné. "Experiences" by Michel Montaigne. Module 4. Renaissance Literature in England and Spain X. Renaissance Literature in England Socio-economic development of England in the XIV-XV centuries. Movement from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. Pre-Renaissance features in the works of Geoffrey Chaucer. The role of Chaucer in the formation of the English literary language. Collection “The Canterbury Tales”: the role of compositional framing; connection with the tradition of Boccaccio and innovation of Chaucer. The flourishing of folk poetry. A cycle of ballads about Robin Hood. Economic recovery in England in the 16th century. Manufacturing production. The process of fencing and its socio-economic consequences. Laws against vagrants and beggars. Development of trade and shipping. The struggle of England and Spain for dominance of the seas. The defeat of the "Invincible Armada". The beginning of England's colonial expansion. Development of statehood under the Tudors. Reformation in England. English humanistic culture. The life and work of Thomas More. “Utopia”: the specifics of the genre and its further development. "New Atlantis" by Francis Bacon. English Renaissance novel. "Arcadia" by Philip Sidney, "Euphues, or the Anatomy of Wit" by John Lyly, "The Ill-fated Wanderer, or the Life of Jack Wilton" by Thomas Nash. English poetry. Association of humanist poets "Areopagus". The love sonnets of Philip Sidney, his treatise "A Defense of Poetry". "The Faerie Queene" by Edmund Spenser. "Spenserian stanza". The rise of English theater. "University Minds" (Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene, Christopher Marlowe). “The Tragic History of Doctor Faustus” by K. Marlowe. Biography of William Shakespeare. The essence of the “Shakespearean question”. Periodization of Shakespeare's work. Shakespeare and antiquity (poems “Venus and Adonis”, “Lucretia”). Shakespeare as a lyric poet, the structure and rhyme of his sonnet. Theme of sonnets. The image of a lyrical hero. Sonnets dedicated to the "dark lady". Genre originality of Shakespeare's dramaturgy. The problematics and poetics of early comedies (“The Taming of the Shrew”, “Twelfth Night”, “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “The Merchant of Venice”). The movement of time in the historical chronicles of Shakespeare. The problem of historicism. The role of the “Falstaffian background”. Analysis of "Richard III" and "Henry IV". Features and evolution of Shakespearean tragedy (the concept of the tragic, conflict, characters). The originality of the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", attributed to the first period of Shakespeare's work. Tragedies of the second period. "Hamlet": sources of the plot, specifics of the conflict. Various interpretations of the tragedy and the image of the main character. Tragedies "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth". Ancient plots in Shakespeare's dramaturgy. Tragedies “Julius Caesar”, “Antony and Cleopatra”, “Coriolanus”, “Timon of Athens”. "Dark Comedies" ("All's Well That Ends Well", "Measure for Measure"). The third period of Shakespeare's work. Tragicomedies “Cymbeline”, “The Winter's Tale”, “The Tempest”. Shakespeare and world literature. Problems of modern Shakespearean studies. XI. Renaissance Literature in Spain Completion of the Reconquista and the unification of Spanish lands. Economic development. Colonial expansion. Strengthening absolutist tendencies. The deterioration of the situation in Spain. Domestic and foreign policy of Philip II. The death of the "Invincible Armada". The role of the Catholic Church in public life Spain. Spanish culture of the Renaissance. The genre of the novel in Spanish Renaissance literature. Knightly (“Amadis of Gaul”) and picaresque (“Life of Lazarillo from Tormes”) novels. The life and work of Miguel de Cervantes. Pastoral novel "Galatea". Dramaturgy of Cervantes. Tragedy "Numancia", comedy and sideshow. Collection "Edifying Stories". The history of the creation of the novel “Don Quixote”: the author’s plan and its implementation. “Don Quixote” as a literary parody (the scheme of a chivalric novel, the hero-knight, the style of the work) and the deep meaning of the novel (eternal types and themes). Genre specificity of Cervantes's work. “Don Quixoticism”, the image of Don Quixote in world culture. Speech by I.S. Turgenev “Hamlet and Don Quixote”. Spanish Renaissance theater. The works of Lope de Vega. Treatise “The New Art of Composing Comedies in Our Time.” The genre diversity of Lope de Vega’s dramaturgy, the difficulties of its classification. Dramas “Star of Seville”, “Fuente Ovejuna”, comedies “Dog in the Manger”, “Dancing Teacher”. 3.3. Practical (seminar) classes 3.4. Laboratory exercises Not included in the curriculum. 3.5. Independent work Types of independent work:

Independent study of the theoretical course.

Taking notes of required monographs.

Reading literary texts, keeping a reader's diary (in which the student can briefly outline the content of the works of fiction he has read, write down the quotes from the texts that he needs for subsequent analysis).

Module 1

General characteristics of the Middle Ages

1.2. The main stages in the development of the medieval epic

1.3. Chivalric literatureXII- XIIIcenturies

1.4. Medieval urban literature

Module 2

2.5. Pre-Renaissance in Italy. Dante's works

2.6. General characteristics of the Western European Renaissance

2.7. Renaissance Literature in Italy

Module 3

3.8. Renaissance Literature in Germany and the Netherlands

3.9. Renaissance Literature in France

Module 4

4.10. Renaissance Literature in England

4.11. Renaissance Literature in Spain

See table No. 1.

4.1. Basic and additional literature,

informational resources

4.1.1 Fiction

(texts for required reading)

1. Irish sagas /by the student’s choice from the anthology/ 2. Icelandic sagas /by the student’s choice from the anthology/ 3. The Elder Edda /several songs by the student’s choice/ 4. The Song of Roland 5. The Song of My Sid 6. The Song of the Nibelungs 7 Bedier J. Novel about Tristan and Isolde 8. Dante Alighieri. New life. Divine Comedy 9. F. Petrarch. Book of Songs 10. G. Boccaccio. Decameron /short stories of the student's choice/ 11. L. Ariosto. Furious Roland /according to the reader/ 12. T. Tasso. Liberated Jerusalem /according to the reader/ 13. S. Brant. Ship of Fools 14. “Letters of Dark People” /according to the anthology/ 15. W. Hutten. Dialogues /according to the reader/ 16. Erasmus of Rotterdam. Praise of stupidity 17. F. Villon. Lyrics 18. Margaret of Navarre. Heptameron /short stories of the student’s choice/ 19. F. Rabelais. Gargantua and Pantagruel 20. P. Ronsard. Lyrics 21. J. Chaucer. Canterbury Tales /short stories of the student's choice/ 22. T.More. Utopia 23. W. Shakespeare. Sonnets. Richard S. Henry IV. The Taming of the Shrew. A dream in a summer night. The Merchant of Venice. Twelfth Night. Romeo and Juliet. Hamlet. Othello. King Lear. Macbeth /you must read several sonnets of the student's choice, one of the historical chronicles, one of the comedies and all of Shakespeare's tragedies listed/ 24. Lope de Vega. Sheep source. Dog in the manger 25. M. Cervantes. Don Quixote

4.1.2 Academic publications

4.1.3 Textbooks and teaching aids

At the end of the early Middle Ages, the first records of the heroic epic appeared, which before that existed only in oral retellings. The heroes of folk tales were mainly warriors who bravely defended their land and people. In these works two worlds are intertwined: real and fairy-tale. Heroes often won with the help of magical powers.

In the 10th century An ancient Germanic epic was written down "The Poem of Beowulf" . The main character, the brave knight Beowulf, defeats the fierce giant and frees Denmark from him. Then he returns to his homeland and accomplishes many feats. For 50 long years, Beowulf rightly rules the Geat tribe, but his lands are attacked by a fire dragon. Beowulf killed the monster, but he himself died. The fairy-tale motif here is successfully intertwined with real historical events that took place in Northern Europe.

The pinnacle of the French heroic epic is "The Song of Roland" . It is based on Charlemagne’s unsuccessful campaign in Spain, when one of his troops was defeated by the Basques. The unknown author interweaves real events with fiction: a detachment of Franks is commanded by Roland, the Basques became Muslim Saracens (Arabs), and the Spanish campaign is depicted as a protracted seven-year war.

Illustrations by contemporary Ukrainian artist S. Yakutovich for the epic “The Song of Roland”

Every nation has a hero-hero exalted in the epic: the Spaniards have Sid (“The Song of My Sid”), the Germans have Siegfried (“The Song of the Nibelungs”), the Serbs have Marko Korolevich (a cycle of songs about Mark Korolevich), etc. n. In the heroic epic they recreated and preserved historical events, and the ideals of the people. The courage, patriotism, and loyalty of the main characters were an example for contemporaries and at the same time personified the military code of honor inherent in knightly culture.

In the XI-XIII centuries. knightly literature flourished. In the south of France, in Provence, it spreads lyric poetry troubadours . Poet-knights lived at the courts of influential lords. That’s why this poetry is also called courtly poetry. It is based on a cult Beautiful lady: the knight exalts the lady of his heart, sings of her beauty and virtues and undertakes to serve her. In honor of the noble lady, they performed feats of arms, organized tournaments, etc.

The names of many troubadours have reached us. Among them is considered a recognized master Bernart de Ventadorn . It is interesting that women also wrote courtly poetry: among almost five hundred troubadour poets, there were thirty women. Material from the site

Courtly lyrics quickly spread throughout Europe. It was created in the north of France trouvères , in Germany - Minnesingers , it was known in Italy and the Iberian Peninsula.

In the 12th century. another literary genre appears - romance. His typical hero is the knight errant, who deliberately undertakes exploits and adventures for the sake of glory, moral improvement and in honor of his lady. First, poetic novels appear, and subsequently prose novels.

The first novels of this type arose under the influence Celtic legends about the courageous King Arthur and the brave knights of the Round Table. The most popular romance in the Middle Ages was the chivalric romance. "Tristan and Isolde" about the tragic love of the royal nephew Tristan and Queen Isolde Golden-Brace. Knightly literature contributed to the development of secular medieval culture.

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• Very summary song of roland

At the late stage of the primitive tribal system, the Western European epic began to take shape. It relies on the artistic arsenal of myth and fairy tale. Reflecting the growth of the historical consciousness of medieval man, the epic is in constant development, and in the 7th-8th centuries, when the contours of feudal statehood were determined, it experienced a kind of rebirth. This gives grounds to talk about two stages of the epic: archaic (pre-state) and heroic (state).

The ancient Icelandic epic songs should be considered the oldest example of the epic creativity of the peoples of Western Europe. Created by the Scandinavians in the pre-literate era, these songs were brought to Iceland during the period of its development at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. In the 13th century, during the heyday of writing in Iceland, a handwritten collection on parchment containing 29 epic songs was compiled. Remaining unknown for a long time, the collection was discovered only in the 17th century. and received the name "Elder Edda". By this time, the word "Edda" (the exact meaning of which remains unclear) was assigned to the book of the Icelandic scientist Snorri Sturluson (13th century), in which many Old Norse tales were retold and the fundamentals of the poetics of the singer-storytellers - the skalds - were set out. The songs of the handwritten collection were recognized earlier in origin than the book of Snorri, which therefore began to be called the “Younger Edda”.

The songs of the Elder Edda are usually divided into songs about gods and songs about heroes. In both songs of the Edda, the scale is cosmic and there are almost no specific historical, geographical, or temporal realities. The world is divided into three spheres: the upper world of the gods, the underground world of monsters, and the middle world of people. The gods are anthropomorphic: they look like people, they and their allies in the fight against the dark forces of evil. The concept of life is tragic: both gods and heroes are mortal. But the upcoming troubles and disasters do not deprive the heroes of fortitude, do not plunge them into despair and apathy. Man heroically goes towards his destiny; a good name, posthumous fame are his main assets.

Among the mythological songs of the Elder Edda, one of the most significant is “The Divination of the Völva” - a kind of introduction to the mythological system of the ancient Scandinavians. The song is designed as a monologue: the sorceress-soothsayer Völva tells the supreme god Odin about the past, present and future destinies of the world.

Once upon a time, the song says, there was no sand, no sea, no sky, no earth, no grass grew, and only the giant Ymir lived, from whose body the world was created. Odin and his brothers created Midgard - the middle space - the habitat of man. The first people - Ask and Emblya - in the form of tree prototypes of ash and willow were found by the gods on the seashore and gave them breath, spirit, warmth, and colored their faces with blush. And there was once a “golden age”. And then terrible times came. Trouble came along with the war of the gods: the Aesir and the Vens. And then follows a story about how the gods broke their oaths, how the bright god Balder, Odin’s beloved son, and Odin’s other son Vali, “did not wash his palms or comb his hair,” died until he struck the killer of his brother.

The tragic fate of the world is revealed with even greater force in the story of the birth of the giant wolf Fenrir. The gods will not be able to cope with him, and Fenrir himself is destined to swallow the sun. Meanwhile, the human world is plunged into the abyss of bloody cruelty. Complete moral failure: brothers will fight with brothers, relatives with relatives, man will not spare man. And there the sun will darken, and the earth will disappear into the sea. This is how the soothsayer paints a universal picture of the destruction of the world.

But the ending of the song is intended to instill faith that the “golden age” will return: the prophet sees a shining, wonderful palace where faithful warriors will live, destined for eternal happiness.

The heroic songs of the Edda are more specific in content. They tell about the tragic destinies of individual people, tightly connected with the troubles and sorrows of their community. Usually this is a story about intertribal relations, about battles and strife, about avengers and avengers. Each individual song tells only about a certain period of the hero’s life; what came before and what came next can usually be learned from other songs. It also happens that the same event is interpreted differently in songs. Moreover, the song names many names, which can only be learned from other legends. It’s definitely obvious: epic songs beg to be included in a cycle; the subsequent process of cyclization will be a natural stage on the path to the emergence of a voluminous epic poem.

In Eddic songs about heroes there are many persons, whose fates are narrated in a number of songs. These are Atli, Sigurd, Brynhild, Gudrun. The tragic fates and horrific deeds of each of these heroes are shocking. But the songs do not give moral assessments to the characters. You cannot approach these people with ordinary standards. Everything connected with them is unheard of, and therefore, according to the ideas of that time, heroic. So, Sigurd defeats the monstrous dragon and takes possession of its treasure. But the hero himself is destined terrible death brothers of his wife Gudrun. “Sigurd was cut in two in a deep forest,” and according to another version, he was killed in his own bed. Brynhild sought the murder of Sigurd: he was bound to her by an oath of allegiance, which he later broke. Upon learning of Sigurd's death, Brynhild "laughed from the heart for the only time" - she was finally avenged! But she could not bear the death of her loved one. “After Brynhild’s death, two bonfires were built, one for Sigurd, and this fire burned down first, and Brynhild was burned on another pyre” (“Brynhild’s Journey to Hel”). Gudrun Atli's second husband treacherously kills her brothers: Hegni's "heart was ripped out of his chest with a sharp knife," Gunnar was thrown into a snake pit. And then Gudrun takes terrible revenge on her husband: she kills her sons and treats their father Atli to the meat of the children. After mixing blood with beer, she serves the terrible drink in bowls made from the skulls of boys. Then he kills Atli and sets his home on fire.

The heroic songs of the Elder Edda are majestically epic, but they are not without lyrical notes. And their leading motive is a painful elegy, born of sorrow and pain.

The richest epic literature was created by the Celts. In ancient times, these tribes settled across vast areas of Europe. During the rise of the Roman Empire, the Celts were partially Romanized, and the monuments of their poetic creativity were irretrievably lost. This, for example, happened after the Romans conquered Gaul in the 1st century. BC e. Things were better with the culture of the Celts who settled in the British Isles. During the Early Middle Ages, Ireland became the main center of their culture. It is characteristic that the Christianization of Ireland in the 5th century. did not change the attitude towards the poetic monuments of paganism, but even, on the contrary, contributed to their preservation. Along with Christianity, writing came to Ireland, and at the monasteries, which quickly appeared in large numbers here, workshops for copying books - scriptoria - arose. Thus, a tradition that already existed in continental Europe was continued: a monk must not only pray, but also engage in physical and mental labor, read and copy books. It should be noted that the Irish monks showed amazing attention to the culture of antiquity: poetic tales were recorded, preserved, and they were not forbidden to study in schools.

Irreversible damage to Celtic culture was caused later: in the 8th-10th centuries, in connection with the Viking invasion of Ireland, and from the 11th century, when the country was conquered by the Anglo-Normans. It was during this period that many Irish monasteries were plundered and destroyed, and the number of lost manuscripts cannot be counted.

Despite the disastrous consequences of the wars of conquest, many monuments of Old Scandinavian literature have survived to our time. These are prose works with poetic inserts, usually in those places where drama or lyrical notes reach particular tension. Already in modern times, these narratives began to be called sagas (legends), the Icelanders called them “stories”, “tales”.

In the Irish sagas, in comparison with the songs of the Elder Edda, the cosmic scale is significantly muted; the emphasis is largely placed on the exploits and deeds of individual heroes, whose life goals are determined by the interests of the family and clan. The composition of the sagas is not closed. All of them suggest themselves in cycles, the unifying beginning of which is either the story of the hero (the Uladian cycle, the Finn cycle), or some general problems of existence (mythological sagas, sagas about the voyage to the land of bliss).

The most significant part of the Irish epic is the Uladian cycle, the oldest version of which has reached our time in a manuscript dating back to the beginning of the 11th century. and received the name - because of the quality of its parchment - "The Book of the Brown Cow."

The central character of the cycle is the hero Cuchulainn, whose days of life the legend dates back to the 1st century. n. e. The image of Cuchulainn is one of the greatest creations of the poetic genius of the ancient Irish. And today his name is surrounded by the highest glory in Ireland, he is a popularly recognized national hero. Let us note that the absolute impeccability of Cuchulainn is noted more than once in the legends dedicated to him: “The women of Ulada loved him above all others for his dexterity in games, courage in jumping, clarity of mind, sweetness of speech, charm of his face and tenderness of gaze.” Cuchulainn had only three shortcomings: his youth, his unheard-of pride in his courage, and the fact that he was excessively handsome and stately (“Matchmaking to Emer”). Cuchulainn equally combines the features mythological hero, the bearer of archaic demonism, and the qualities of an earthly person. This duality, presented, however, in an organic artistic unity, makes itself felt constantly, starting from the moment of his miraculous birth. So, according to one version, he is the son of the god of light and patron of crafts, Lug; according to another, the son of King Conchobor, who entered into an incestuous relationship with his sister. But in every version, Cuchulainn's mother is the mortal woman Dekhtire.

The “biography” of the hero, which can be traced from the moment of his birth to the last moments of his life, is built on motifs that have a stable character in folk poetry. These are incredible feats accomplished by Cuchulain as a child; What stands out among them is the victory over the monstrous dog of the blacksmith Kulan. This is the story of the hero's heroic matchmaking, a mortal duel with his own son, a visit to the other world, a battle with his brother-in-law Ferdind...

Cuchulainn manages to accomplish the greatest feats not only thanks to his strength, courage and courage, but also to his magical power: the ability to unexpectedly transform, the ability to master wonderful fighting techniques. The unearthly is manifested in the very appearance of the hero: “There were seven pupils in the eyes of the young man - three in one and four in the other, seven toes on each foot and seven on each hand” (“Matchmaking to Emer”). Mythological creatures play a significant role in the hero’s life: he is trained by the sorceress Scathach, his lovers were the heroic maiden Aiore and the fairy Fand, his allies and opponents were the fairy Morrigan, the sorcerer Ku Roi...

According to the traditions of legends of this kind, it is in the dying hour that Cuchulain ascends to the highest level of his heroic destiny. The saga “The Death of Cuchulainn” tells about this - one of the most sublime in the cycle. The eternal opponent of Cuchulainn, Queen Medb, sends a terrible army against the Ulads, led by the sons of Galatin trained in the magical arts. Cuchulainn also goes to battle, but his fate is already sealed: “The women let out a cry of suffering, sorrow and pity, knowing that the hero would never return...” And on the way to the battlefield, the witches treated the hero to dog meat. Cuchulainn could not refuse this: for he made a vow to respond to every request of a woman. But the witch’s gift was fatal: with her left hand she served the meat to Cuchulainn - and they lost their former strength and left hand and the hero's left thigh. Despite this, Cu Chulainn fought bravely and defeated many enemies. But he could not resist the forces of the attackers: the hero’s driver was killed, then his horse, and then he himself was mortally wounded. And then Cuchulainn tied himself to a high stone: “for he did not want to die either sitting or lying down, but only standing.” But Lugaid, the son of three Dogs, “grabbed Cuchulainn’s hair from behind his back and cut off his head. Then his sword fell from Cuchulainn’s hands and cut off Lugaidu’s right hand, so that it fell to the ground. In revenge, they cut off Cuchulainn’s right hand. Then they left from there. warriors, taking with them the head of Cuchulainn and his hand" ("The Death of Cuchulainn").

In terms of significance, the legends dedicated to the Finn occupy the closest place to the Uladian cycle. The hero’s name stands for “secret knowledge” and carries the following meaning: “Once a drop of a wonderful drink fell on Finn’s finger; and from now on, as soon as the hero puts this finger in his mouth, he becomes familiar with the highest secrets.” There is another version: Finn became a sage because he tasted the salmon of wisdom. But Finn is not only a wise man. He is also a brave warrior. It was he who managed to defeat the terrible one-eyed monster.

One of the most poetic sagas of the cycle is “The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne.” With many of its motives it anticipates the story of the tragic love of Tristan and Isolde. The saga tells that old Finn decided to get married, and the daughter of the King of Ireland, Grainne, was chosen as his bride. But Grainne doesn’t like the groom. And during the feast, the girl treats everyone to a drink that induces sleep. And on the “tanned, sweet-tongued warrior Diarmuid” she imposes “dangerous and destructive shackles of love.” Enchanted by this bond, Diarmuid flees with Grainne. The wanderings of the heroes continue for sixteen long years. And all this time, the fearless Diarmuid defeats the powerful warriors and monsters sent after him - poisonous dogs. Finn finally makes peace with Diarmuid. Secluded, but prosperous and happy, Diarmuid lived with his family. And he had four sons and a daughter. But happiness is changeable, and a person always wants more. Grainne wanted to throw a feast and invite guests to it, and among them the Finn. Diarmuid reluctantly agreed to this, as if he had a presentiment of his sad end. And indeed, the wise and cunning Finn organized a hunt, and a terrible boar mortally wounded Diarmuid. Finn could have brought the hero back to life by giving him a sip from his palm, but he did not. Grainne grieved for a long time. But the cunning Finn managed to win the widow over to his side. They became husband and wife. And when the sons of Diarmuid, having matured and gained military experience, decided to go to war against Finn, Grainne managed to persuade everyone to agree.

The world of Irish sagas is a harsh world. He tests a person to the utmost of his strength and even more than that. This is a world of grandiose and majestic, mysterious and mysterious. Assessments: good or bad, moral or immoral - have not yet become a criterion. Heroically establishing himself in this world, demonstrating the unheard of in his deeds, a person retains faith in the power of fate. And therefore, his unprecedented exploits and horrific actions are not subject to ordinary court.

Archaic epic as a special type of epic creativity exhausted itself in the 7th-8th centuries. The reasons for this should be sought in the very nature of the poetics of the epic.

An epic is a poetic reflection of a person’s historical consciousness, and what the epic tells about is understood as the unconditional truth. This truth was the world of myth and the world of fairy tales, on which the archaic epic grew up and relied. But, developing according to the principle of demythologization, becoming saturated with more and more specific historical realities, the archaic epic lost its original basis. In turn, the development of state life posed new problems for a person related to the awareness of his place not only in the system of the universe, family and clan, but also in history. All this significantly changed the very nature of epic creativity: the archaic (pre-state) epic was replaced by a heroic (state) epic.

The most striking and significant monument of the transitional type is the Anglo-Saxon poem "Beowulf", which took shape either at the end of the 7th or at the beginning of the 8th century. and has reached our time in a single manuscript dating back to the 10th century. Following the example of fairy tales, the structure of the poem is determined by three central feats of the hero, with each subsequent feat more difficult than the previous one.

The name Beowulf, which means “wolf of bees”, bear, is not mentioned in historical sources. The heroes in the epic poem come from the world of myth and fairy tales. Beowulf is depicted in the poem as a representative of the Gaut tribe, who voluntarily took upon himself the mission of fighting monsters, “life-destroyers” of people. Having heard that a terrible cannibal named Grendel has appeared in Denmark, Beowulf goes there, defeats the monster with relative ease, and after this, with great difficulty, defeats Grendel’s mother, fighting with her in an alien world - a watery abyss. Fifty years pass. In the vicinity of the country ruled by Beowulf, a fire-breathing dragon appears. Beowulf engages him in battle. The dragon is struck, but the hero also dies from a mortal wound.

Basically, the poem remains within the framework of the archaic epic. This is evidenced by the hero’s miraculous powers and the wondrous feats that he performs. Beowulf generally embodies the strength, power, and fearlessness of the entire community to which he belongs: “He was the strongest among the mighty noble heroes, stately and proud.” Beowulf's enemies are mythological creatures, inhabitants of an alien, demonic world. The motif of dragon fighting plays a significant role in the poem. The hero himself acts as a defender of culture, mastering the elements of nature.

But the story of the hero’s struggle with mythological creatures is set against a specific historical background: countries, tribes and nationalities are named, relations between the Angles and Saxons are reflected, the raids of the Gaugs on the Franks, and the tribal feuds of the Danes and Frisians are told. The scope of the historical world in the poem is wide - and this is a sign that clan-tribal isolation is being overcome. And in conjunction with this, a voluminous poem with a developed descriptive element and an abundance of digressions is born. So, for example, Beowulf’s battle with Grendel and his mother is first described in detail, and then the hero talks about them again in equal detail after his return to his native land. The compositional harmony of the work increases. This is no longer a chain of epic songs connected by a single hero, but an organic plot unity.

The poem noticeably reflects the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons, which dates back to the 7th century. The pagans are doomed to failure; success accompanies those who honor the Creator. The Almighty helps Beowulf: “The intercessor god... the weaver of fortune placed a hero over the army of Gaut.” In the poem, at times, the military virtues of the hero are indistinguishably close to the Christian virtues of the hero. Some of Beowulf's personality traits and vicissitudes are reminiscent of the life of Jesus Christ.

The final scenes of the poem are ambiguous in tone. The hero's last feat is colored with high tragedy, not without sacrifice. Preparing to meet the Dragon, Beowulf "felt in his heart the proximity of death." IN Hard time the hero's squad left. The scenes of Beowulf's death and the funeral burning of his body are imbued with eschatological motifs. “The groans of the fire were echoed by cries,” and a certain old woman “howled over Beowulf, predicting a terrible time, death, robberies and inglorious battles.”

But there are also encouraging notes in the same scenes. The young knight Wiglaf helps Beowulf defeat the dragon. He alone from Beowulf’s squad did not lose heart, remained strong in spirit, did not flinch in difficult times, and did not lose the glory of his ancestors. It was he, Wiglaf, who arranged the solemn burial of Beowulf; Moreover, not only the hero’s body is burned on the funeral fire, but also the treasure, over which ancient spells weighed down.

The poem begins with a description of the funeral of the Danish king Scyld Skeving and ends with the funeral of Beowulf. But in each case, death does not mean the end at all. Sorrow and joy, despair and hope go side by side. And life goes on forever.