Over the last month, how many videos have I watched where they claimed that our planet is actually a hologram, that reptilians came from outer space, and people are their lab rats. People love to believe in all sorts of nonsense! As if they didn’t teach us at school how our biosphere developed. Although I’m sure that most of the authors of such videos don’t even know what I’m talking about, what is biosphereA.

Biosphere - the shell of the Earth

Let's imagine the candy “Bears in the Forest”. Our planet is like such candy. And on shell, as on the wrapper, bears live. And not only them, but also all living beings. This:

There is another definition: biosphere is a place in space where life spreads. Don’t you see the difference with the previous definition, since the Earth is a space object? The fact is that this approach assumes that life can exist and on other planets.

Biosphere within the Solar System

What life in all its diversity exists on Earth - the matter is obvious. Look outside the window: birds are flying, butterflies are fluttering, trees are growing, flowers are blooming. But what about extraterrestrial civilizations?

Scientists have been hoping to find life in space for decades. The very first candidate here was Mars, and all because it is very well located. But the research led to sad results: even the smallest organisms, like bacteria, and were not found in the vastness of the red planet. It’s a pity: Bradbury described life on Mars so beautifully in his “ Martian Chronicles».

Other contenders were Jupiter's moons – Callisto and Europa. Here everything is even more rosy, research is still underway. For example, scientists believe that under the ice of Europe the real one is hiding ocean. What if life could arise there, as on Earth? Moreover, this moon of Jupiter also hides under its surface oxygen reserves. On Callisto with oxygen it’s worse, but ocean presence also quite likely.

What about the gas giant itself? Alas, here the climate is too harsh so that you can exist here. The same can be said about Uranus, Saturn and Neptune.

Yes and Venus not happy with his acid rain. Try living in such conditions!

So on every planet– somewhere the puzzle doesn’t fit, and life just can't appear. So The fact that the biosphere and you and I, as part of it, exist is a huge piece of luck.

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"What is the biosphere?" - this question ruined me school olympiad in biology. After that day, I learned and, probably, for the rest of my life I will remember what this “sphere” was that cost me Olympic silver. Now I’ll tell you about it so that no one else falls for insidious questions.

The biosphere and what it is eaten with

Biosphere - shell of the earth, which is inhabited alive organisms. It's like this global ecosystem of our planet Earth. The biosphere includes all land, bodies of water(but it’s difficult to say for sure about the depth to which the reservoir belongs to the biosphere; it is very likely that there is life at the bottom of the Mariana Trench), this upper layers of soil (up to 7.5 km deep) And lower layers of the atmosphere (15-17 km).

If living organisms exist somewhere, then their habitat is already part of the biosphere. If life is found on other planets or people populate them, then the populated areas of the other planet will be a biosphere.

What does the biosphere consist of?

1. Alive organisms or, to put it roughly scientifically, living matter.
2. Nutrient(what living organisms form, that is, their waste products and what animals and plants synthesize, say, glucose, etc.).
3. Inert substance(that which is formed not by living organisms, but by nature, for example, stones)
4. Somewhere between inert matter and biogenic matter, such as soil itself or silt.
5. Substances of extraterrestrial origin(many meteorites fall to the ground, some disintegrate and the rock from which they are created falls to the ground).
6. The most mysterious part is atoms, which, under the influence of forces and radiation, were knocked out of the composition of any earthly substance.

The future of the biosphere

Now the biosphere is undergoing changes and not always favorable ones. To build roads, forests are cut down, rivers, swamps, lakes, which are natural habitat for living organisms. Work is already underway to restore the earth's biosphere through landscaping and the creation of nature reserves. There are suggestions that in the future the biosphere can be recreated on other planets, for example, on Mars.

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The biosphere is everything that can be called living: from dandelions and blue-green algae to humans. It has boundaries, since “life” cannot remain alive under all conditions. For example, in the oceans, “life”, and therefore the biosphere, has spread to approximately 12 km in depth. Above the Earth's surface, 20 km up (the ozone layer ends there). If you rise higher, hard ultraviolet radiation and radiation will destroy all living things.

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My mother is a teacher of geography and biology, which is probably why I was and remain passionate about these subjects. And in view of this, I learned what the biosphere is much earlier than the corresponding topic began to be taught at school.

What is a “living shell” (biosphere)

Speaking in purely scientific language, the biosphere is the ecosystem of the planet. It includes all life on Earth:

• animals;
• plants;
• microorganisms;
• People.

There are several types of “spheres”, including: hydro- (water), strato- (lower part of the atmosphere) and other spheres. They all overlap or combine with each other. In this case, the biosphere is located on the surface of the lithosphere, inside the hydrosphere and in the lower layers of the atmosphere.

It is important to understand that the biosphere consists of more than just living organisms themselves. The Earth's ecosystem also includes, for example, animal waste.

How did the biosphere appear?

Having understood what the biosphere is, it is impossible not to talk at least briefly about how it was formed. According to the most recent data, the formation of the corresponding layer began no later than 3.8 billion years ago - it was at this time that the first organisms began to appear on our planet.

The biosphere is one of the most important layers of the earth. We are all part of it. And even any serious disturbances in the biosphere can lead to tragic consequences.

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Probably each of us has wondered about the benefits of school knowledge. After all, it often seems that we study only useless information, and miss something worthwhile. And today, for the first time in several years, my knowledge of the biosphere was useful to me. After all, who, if not the older sister, helps the younger ones with homework?)

What is hidden under the name "biosphere"

Simply put, the biosphere is all living things, including us who inhabit the Earth, and according to the latest data, not only it. Plants, animals, even their tiniest representatives are part of this ancient earthly shell.

Can you imagine that the biosphere is already more than 3 billion years old? After all, it, as the earth’s shell, began its formation simultaneously with the birth of the first inhabitants of the Earth and to this day contains more than 3 million unique species of representatives of the living world. Incredible, isn't it?

History of the study of the earth's shell

The first attempts to study the largest shell of the Earth can be safely attributed to scientists and philosophers Ancient Greece, China and India. Of course, it took centuries for study and recognition, and not everyone succeeded.

For the first time, the concept of the biosphere was introduced into science by J.B. Lamarck, but many treated the term with caution and distrust for a long time. Only in the twentieth century, thanks to the Soviet scientist V.I. Vernadsky, did the modern doctrine of the earth’s shell appear, which was also not immediately recognized.

Ecological problems of the biosphere

Unfortunately, technological progress has not only brought good things. Due to the large number of industries, unprocessed waste and lack of proper attention to the problem, the condition of the biosphere is deteriorating.

Effective measures to prevent death and destruction of the living shell include:

• financing of environmental projects;
• installation of filters in production;
• limiting waste emissions and recycling;
• use of new, environmentally friendly technologies in production.

Thus, now, in the era of technology, people should think not only about themselves, but also about who lives next door.

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Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, populated by living organisms, which is under their influence and filled with the products of their vital activity.

The biosphere began to form no later than 3.8 billion years ago, when the first organisms began to emerge on our planet. It passes through the entire hydrosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere. The biosphere is the totality of all living organisms. It is inhabited by more than 3,000,000 species of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. Man is also part of the biosphere.

French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck early XIX V. first proposed the concept of the biosphere, without even naming the term itself. The term "biosphere" was proposed by the Austrian geologist and paleontologist Eduard Suess in 1875.

A holistic doctrine of the biosphere was created by the Soviet biogeochemist and philosopher V.I. Vernadsky. For the first time, he assigned living organisms the role of the main transformative force of planet Earth, taking into account their activities not only at the present time, but also in the past.

Boundaries of the biosphere:

• Upper limit in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone ball, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet rays that are destructive to living organisms.
• Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of transition of water into steam and the temperature of denaturation of proteins, but generally the distribution of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters.
• The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.

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IN student years I often had the opportunity to work with various biological and ecological concepts. But what the biosphere is and what its boundaries are has been a mystery to me for a long time. But one day, gathering my will into a fist, I decided to figure out what kind of thing this is? And I didn’t regret it, because I learned a lot of new things!

Why the biosphere is a film of life

The doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the greatest Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. He called it the “living” shell of the earth. Simply put, the biosphere is an area inhabited by living organisms. Moreover, it is so subtle that our contemporaries more often use the concept of “film of life” to define this unusual phenomenon.

Thus, the biosphere can include all places on our planet where life can be found. And the aforementioned Vernadsky said that it is the living organisms living in it that play the most important role in creating the appearance of the Earth.

Layering of the biosphere

With all of the above, we can name three obvious layers in the “living” shell of the planet:

• the aerosphere populated by bacteria and flying animals;
• the geosphere, inhabited by all organisms living on earth;
• hydrosphere inhabited by aquatic organisms.

People, like most mammals, are residents of the second on the list, but the first in importance, geosphere.

Is there a biosphere in space?

But small living organisms can rise beyond the accepted boundaries of the aerosphere. In particular, tardigrades can easily withstand the cold and radiation of space. Given that for most other animals, the upper limit of survival is the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 15–20 kilometers.

And recently I read that microscopic algae were discovered on the skin of the ISS, apparently accidentally brought in by those leaving open space astronauts. These amazing organisms were able to calmly grow and reproduce there!..

So it turns out that the biosphere is a home for the inhabitants of the Earth of any kind. But the desire for life is stronger than all circumstances. Therefore, many organisms can easily find refuge far beyond the borders of our planet.

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Life in all its manifestations interested me even in the very beginning. early age. Endless books and TV shows about animals, plants, mushrooms...

When biology lessons started at school, I was in seventh heaven. That's when I found out what is the biosphere?

What are geospheres

Biosphere- one of geospheres, so I suggest you get acquainted with this first general concept.

If we imagine the Earth in a very simplified way as a prefabricated structure, we can find that it consists of the following shell spheres:

• lithosphere;
• pedosphere;
• hydrosphere;
• atmosphere;
• biosphere.

The lithosphere is formed by the earth's crust; pedosphere - soil; hydrosphere - water; atmosphere - air.

All geospheres connected between themselves, neither one can be “removed” without damaging the other. They are not static, each is constantly changes.

Biosphere(“life” + “sphere”) is different from others.

It is the youngest and in a sense the most fragile, because the biosphere is life itself, i.e. a set of living organisms and elements of their life activity.

What is included in the biosphere

Biosphere is quite complicated. It intersects with other geospheres, forming:

• geobiosphere;
• hydrobiosphere;
• aerobiosphere.

The biosphere of earth, water and air, in other words. They are all interconnected.

Substances that make up the biosphere:

• alive;
• biogenic;
• inert;
• bioinert.

With the first, everything is simple - these are the organisms themselves. WITH biogenic too - these are products of their (organisms) vital activity.

Inert substance is formed without any participation of living organisms, but bioinert is a kind of “mixture” of biogenic and inert.

Biokosnoe a substance is formed by the joint “work” of living organisms and complex and, as a rule, long-term geochemical processes.

The simplest example is soil. Organic waste in it gradually decomposes into inorganic substances, which are then absorbed by plants, parts of which then die off, turning into organic waste...

Like this cyclicality.

If we consider the organisms inhabiting the biosphere, they have traditionally been divided kingdoms:

• bacteria;
• mushrooms;
• plants;
• animals.

IN this moment tend to be classified into separate kingdoms chromists And protists, which, by their characteristics, do not belong to any of the listed groups.

Viruses occupy a complex, strange position between living and nonliving, so it is unclear to what extent they relate or do not relate to biosphere. Although they influence her life more than noticeably.

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) and hard ( litho-sphere) shell of the Earth (Fig. 74).

Upper limit

The upper boundary of the biosphere is located at an altitude of 15-25 km above sea level (and is different in different regions of the Earth) in the lower layer of the atmosphere - the troposphere (Fig. 75).

Within these limits of the bio-sphere, under the influence of energy sun rays Oxygen is converted into ozone and an ozone shield is formed. It does not transmit the main part of cosmic and ultraviolet rays, which have a harmful effect on living organisms, so they do not reach the earth's surface.

In the uppermost layers of the biosphere there are spores of bacteria, fungi, mosses and ferns that are very resistant to adverse conditions (they are called aeroplankton). Some birds, butterflies and spiders can rise to a height of 6-7 km.

Lower limit in the hydrosphere

Composition of the biosphere is diverse and is divided into four parts.

• Living matter.
• Nutrients.
• Solids.
• Substances of biogenic and abiogenic origin.

Living matter

The totality of all living organisms living on our planet is living matter biosphere. Despite the fact that living matter in its mass represents a very insignificant part of the biosphere, its activity during geological epochs had a huge impact on the development of the Earth.

According to V.I. Vernadsky, life originated on Earth some time after its appearance and was one of the main factors that changed the appearance of our planet.

Nutrients

Nutrients is the result of the activity of living organisms. These include oil, coal, limestone and atmospheric gases.

Solids

The total mass of living organisms in the biosphere is called biomass, 93% of which is on land, and 7% in the aquatic environment. Living organisms through their activities exert big influence on biosphere processes and cause changes in the biosphere.

The biosphere is constantly evolving. Its development is determined by factors such as geological and climatic changes on our planet, the impact of living organisms and human activity.

The first stage of the evolution of the biosphere is called biogenesis, and the second - noogenesis. Currently, due to the fact that the main influence on the biosphere is exerted by

Biosphere- the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms. Includes the lower atmosphere, hydrosphere, and upper lithosphere. The founder of the doctrine of the biosphere is V.I. Vernadsky. He emphasized that the biosphere is the result of a complex mechanism of geological and biological development and the interaction of inert and biogenic matter. The living matter of the biosphere is the totality of all its living organisms. Vernadsky called the highest stage of development of the biosphere the noosphere, when intelligent human activity is the determining factor in the development of life. The basis of biosphere stability -biological diversity of all life on Earth - from genes to ecosystems.

Concept and definition of the biosphere. Structure of the biosphere

The complex natural process that has occurred and is occurring on Earth is directly related to the interaction of the three shells of the planet: the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. It is these shells that are the sphere, the area where living organisms exist. The region where living organisms exist on Earth is called the biosphere.

For the first time, the French naturalist J.B. came close to the concept of “biosphere”. Lamarck in the 18th century. The conclusions he made suggest that they contain the rudiments of the concept of the biosphere. Lamarck's works laid the foundation for ideas about the existence on our planet of a certain space inhabited by living beings. Moreover, it was emphasized that this space is organized precisely by the vital activity of organisms.

Austrian geologist E.-F. Suess introduced the concept and definition of the biosphere into science in 1875. He wrote: “In the area of ​​interaction between the upper spheres and the lithosphere and on the surface of the continents, an independent biosphere can be distinguished. It now extends over both dry and wet surfaces, but it is clear that previously it was limited only to the hydrosphere."

(from the Greek bios - life and sphaira - ball) - the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms, the habitat area of ​​living organisms on the planet. It was living organisms that formed limestone deposits, coal and oil deposits, and accumulated free oxygen in the atmosphere.

Structure of the biosphere

The biosphere is a complex planetary shell of life, inhabited by organisms that together make up living matter. This is the largest (global) ecosystem of the Earth - an area of ​​systemic interaction between living and inert matter.

The biosphere covers the lower part of the atmosphere to the height of the ozone screen (20-25 km), the upper part of the lithosphere (weathering crust) and the entire hydrosphere to the deep layers of the ocean (Fig. 11).

Too high or low temperatures limit the distribution of life. The lower boundary of the biosphere on continents is conventionally drawn along the 100 °C isotherm. At higher temperatures, most bacteria cannot exist. In Europe, this isotherm is located at a depth of 10-15 km; in young alpine troughs it rises to 1.5-2 km. In fact, life in the lithosphere can be traced to a depth of 3-4 km.

The limit of the length of the biosphere is 39-40 km. However, life in the biosphere is concentrated within much narrower limits, covering only a few tens of meters. Compared to the diameter of the Earth (13,000 km), the biosphere is a thin film on its surface.

As for the boundary of the biosphere in the seas and oceans, the English naturalist E. Forbes in 1841, based on the results of his observations in the Mediterranean Sea, categorically stated that life in ocean waters deeper than 540 m is impossible. However, 20 years later, a cable was lifted from a depth of 2160 m from the sunken ship: it turned out to be covered with corals, oysters, bivalves and gastropods, and squid eggs.

On January 23, 1960, oceanographers J. Picard and D. Walsh descended into the submersible Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean. At a depth of 10,525 m, they spotted fish and shrimp. This proved the existence of living organisms in the most deep places ocean. It should only be noted that the density of organisms in the ocean is extremely uneven. About 5/6 of its inhabitants prefer the upper, sunlit layers. As you descend to depth, the number of species decreases sharply.

Regarding the upper limit of the existence of life, it should be noted that scientists usually place it at an altitude of 20-25 km, where the ozone screen that saves all living things is located. Here the situation with the dispersal of organisms is the same as in the ocean, only in reverse. Already at an altitude of 8-9 km, low temperatures greatly limit the existence of animals and plants.

Rice. 11. General structure of the Earth’s shells that form the biosphere

The biosphere is inhabited by about 2-2.5 million species of living beings. A special place is given to plants - producers organic matter. Their total dry weight (phytomass weight) is estimated at approximately 2.42 x 10 12 tons. This represents 99% of all living matter on the planet. The remaining 1% comes from heterotrophic organisms.

Noosphere

The term “noosphere” (literally, the sphere of the mind) was first used in 1927 by the French researcher E. Leroy. V.I. Vernadsky began to develop and express the basic ideas of the doctrine of the noosphere at the beginning of the 20th century. Even then, he understood the possibilities of the human mind in the global transformation of the world, the prospects for human influence on nature, and the need for speedy harmonization of their relationships.

Noosphere means a new state of the biosphere and the entire planet as a whole, in which the conscious activity of man, the human mind becomes not only a decisive factor in the evolution of the biosphere, but also an important condition its preservation.

The noosphere is the sphere of intelligent activity of people to transform environment. At the same time, society reaches the level of conscious regulation of industrial development and adequate intervention in natural processes. In the state of the noosphere, the needs of society must become commensurate with the capabilities of the geo- and biosphere. The expansion of the noosphere will mean the onset of a noogenic period in the history of interaction between society and nature.

The indicators of the current environmental situation on the planet leave much to be desired, and today special attention is paid to the relationship between humanity and the biosphere. Pollution of the biosphere has long been the root cause of numerous diseases, premature aging and death. The main task modern society is to prevent irreversible changes associated with environmental pollution. The constant development of society and progress stimulates the quantitative and qualitative growth of biosphere pollution.

Humanity owes its idea of ​​the biosphere to the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess, who introduced this concept in 1875.

The position on the biosphere is characterized by the presence of two aspects: from one point of view, the biosphere is a specific shell of the entire earth's space, and from the other, the biosphere is a global ecosystem.

The set of components characterizes the biosphere as the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. All components are inhabited by living organisms, or, based on the expression of V.I. Vernadsky, they represent the area of ​​distribution of living matter.

Composition, structure, layers and boundaries of the biosphere

Emerging almost four billion years ago, today's biosphere includes about three million species of living organisms; their remains; atmospheric zones; the hydrosphere and lithosphere, which are inhabited and modified by these living organisms. The entire set of living organisms on our planet is called living matter by V.I. Vernadsky and is considered as its main characteristics of the total mass, chemical composition and energy.

The composition of the biosphere, in addition to living matter, includes

• a biogenic substance consisting of waste products of all living organisms;
• a bioinert substance that combines decay products, as well as soil, weathering crust and natural water;
• inert matter as a collection of substances formed without the participation of living organisms.

Based on the above, the biosphere is the region of the Earth covered by the influence of living matter. The places where the highest concentration of organisms is observed in the biosphere were called films of life.

Spreading modern life covers the upper part of the earth's crust, or lithosphere; the lower layers of the air envelope, or atmosphere; water shell, or hydrosphere.

The artebiosphere is the space of human expansion into near-Earth space.

The megabiosphere represents the general layer for the impact of life on all inanimate nature.

Panbiosphere is a combination of megabiosphere and artebiosphere.

The biosphere includes the following layers:

1. aerobiosphere,
2. geobiosphere,
3. hydrobiosphere.

The upper boundary in the atmosphere is 15–20 km. In the atmosphere, the limit of life is determined by the indicator of ultraviolet radiation - radiation.

The lower boundary in the lithosphere is 3.5–7.5 km. Life in the lithosphere is limited by the temperature of groundwater and rocks.

The separation between the lithosphere and the atmosphere in the hydrosphere is about 10 km.

The boundary is fixed at the bottom of the World Ocean and includes bottom sediments.

Dynamics and resources of the biosphere

Regular changes occurring in the state of the habitat of all living organisms, as well as the state of these organisms, represent the dynamics of the modern biosphere.

Regular inversion of weather conditions serves as the main source of numerous oscillatory transformations in the biosphere. Modern dynamics of the biosphere have long been influenced human activity. According to Yu. N. Kurazhkovsky, the difference from natural and environmental factors is the predominance of not oscillatory, but predominantly progressive changes occurring in nature.

Example: progress in water transport requires the expansion and modernization of canals that connect various systems rec. This process stimulates the exchange processes of fauna and flora between different water basins. Oscillatory phenomena in nature based on human activity are observed extremely rarely. They are represented either by rhythmic, often multi-year processes of changing plant crops in crop rotation, or by anomalous phenomena.

Ecological problems of the biosphere

Nowadays, the flora of the Earth, in particular North America, needs protection. Otherwise, the plants will continue to die out.

The future of the biosphere

Non-renewable resources of the biosphere are still capable of being formed in the process of geochemical phenomena occurring in the conditions of the subsoil, ocean depths and on the surface of the earth's crust. The rate of their generation in the conditions of the earth’s crust or landscape is incomparably lower than the rate of consumption by humanity. A significant modification of the biosphere has been observed since the active use by humans in order to meet industrial needs of energy external to the biosphere - non-renewable energy of fossil fuels.

The pre-production era was characterized by man's use of exclusively renewable resources of the biosphere in the form of its products for his life. Over time, the biosphere became more unstable, and this process progresses every year. The presence of several untimely changes in the state of the biosphere, tragic for all of humanity, has been recorded, and a significant part of them is associated with the various activities of mankind.

The desire to satisfy growing needs, despite the depletion of a significant part of the biosphere's resources, entails genetic changes in flora and fauna, mass breeding and the spread of monocultures and domestic animals. Such processes lead to sequestration of biological diversity and distortion of ecosystems.

Preservation of the biosphere

Over the past decades, the result of the accelerated development of mankind has been significant distortions of the natural parameters of the biosphere. Pollution occurs on a huge scale natural environment and depletion of biosphere resources. These processes should be the subject of holistic study environmental problem. This task is a priority for the new direction of ecology - social ecology, which determines a safe strategy for transforming the activities of society into the corresponding standards of human life.

The solution to the problem must be based on a revolution in human minds, a revision of spiritual, moral, and also intellectual values. The biosphere should act as the basis of life, not a source of resources. It is necessary to use environmental regulation based on scientifically based limitation of the impact of any activity on biological resources. Such a strategy takes into account the socio-economic interests of humanity and environmental needs, it will help cope with.

The concept of the biosphere. Composition of the biosphere.

That part of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth in which plant and living organisms exist and develop is called the biosphere. Otherwise, the biosphere is the shell of life. It includes not only the plant cover and animal population of the planet, all rivers and lakes, the water mass of the oceans, but also the soil layer, a significant part of the troposphere and the uppermost layer of the earth's crust - the weathering zone. There are practically no areas on the earth's surface where there is no life. Even in hot and arid tropical deserts or on the surface of high-altitude glaciers and polar ice, microbes and other microorganisms have been found.

The biosphere (from the Greek bios - life, sphaira - ball) is the area of ​​systemic interaction between the living and bone matter of the planet. It represents a global ecosystem - the totality of all biogeocenoses (ecosystems) of our planet.

The first ideas about the biosphere as a “region of life” and the outer shell of the Earth were expressed at the beginning of the 19th century by J. Lamarck. In 1875, the Austrian geologist E. Suess first introduced the modern term “biosphere” into the scientific literature, meaning by it the area of ​​​​interaction between the main shells of the Earth: the atmosphere, hydro- and lithosphere, where living organisms are found.

The merit of creating the integrity of the doctrine of the biosphere belongs to V.I. Vernadsky. Using this term, he created the science of “biosphere”, introduced the concept of “living matter” - the totality of all living organisms, and also assigned living organisms the role of the main transformative force of planet Earth, taking into account the activities of organisms not only at the present time, but also in the past. Therefore, the biosphere is all the space where life exists or has ever existed, i.e. where living organisms or products of their vital activity are found. That part of the biosphere where living organisms are found at the present time is usually called the modern biosphere or neobiosphere, and ancient biospheres are referred to as former biospheres, otherwise paleobiospheres or megabiospheres. Examples of the latter are lifeless accumulations of organic substances (deposits of coal, oil, gas, etc.) or reserves of other compounds formed with the direct participation of living organisms (limestones, shell rocks, formations of chalk, a number of ores, and much more).

The biosphere includes:

· Aerobiosphere - the lower part of the atmosphere;

· Hydrobiosphere - the entire hydrosphere;

· Lithobiosphere - the upper horizons of the lithosphere (solid shell of the earth).

The boundaries of the neo- and paleobiosphere are different.

The upper limit is theoretically determined by the ozone layer. For the neobiosphere, this is the lower limit of the ozone layer (about 20 km), which attenuates harmful cosmic ultraviolet radiation to an acceptable level, and for the paleobiosphere, this is the upper limit of the same layer (about 60 km), because oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere is the result primarily of the vital activity of vegetation.

In most cases, the ozone layer is indicated as the upper theoretical boundary of the biosphere without specifying its boundaries.

In practice, the maximum altitude above sea level at which life can exist is limited by the level up to which positive temperatures remain and plants can live. Above, up to the “snow line,” only spiders and some ticks live. Even higher, living organisms can only be encountered by chance.

At altitudes of 7500-8000m, another abiotic factor reaches a critically low value for the vast majority of organisms - absolute atmospheric pressure. Birds and flying insects, which predominantly occupy the lower zone, are the most dependent on pressure.

According to modern ideas, the entire thickness of the World Ocean is completely occupied by life.

The lower limit of the existence of active life is traditionally determined by the ocean bottom 11022 m ( maximum depth Mariana Trench) and the depth of the lithosphere, characterized by a temperature of 100 degrees C (about 6000 m, according to ultra-deep drilling data on the Kola Peninsula). Basically, life in the lithosphere is distributed only a few meters deep, limited to the soil layer.

Sedimentary rocks, almost all of which have undergone processing by living organisms, define the lower boundary of former biospheres, which, however, does not fall on the continents below the greatest depths of the ocean.

Environmental environmental factors. Their classification. Describe abiotic and biotic factors.

Living things are inseparable from their environment. Each individual organism, being an independent biological system, is constantly in direct or indirect relationships with various components and phenomena of its environment or, in other words, habitat, affecting the state and properties of the organism.

Environment is one of the basic ecological concepts, which means the entire spectrum of elements and conditions surrounding an organism in the part of space where the organism lives, everything among which it lives and with which it directly interacts.

Environmental factor - any element of the environment that can directly or indirectly influence a living organism, at least at one of the stages of its individual development, is called an environmental factor.

Environmental factors are diverse, and each factor is a combination of a corresponding environmental condition and its resource.

Environmental environmental factors are usually divided into two groups:

· Factors of inert (non-living) nature - abiotic or abiogenic;

· Wildlife factors - biotic or biogenic.

On the other hand, in origin, both of them are both natural and anthropogenic, i.e. directly or indirectly related to human activities, which not only changes the regimes of natural environmental factors, but also creates new ones by synthesizing pesticides, fertilizers, medicines, etc.

Abiotic factors.

In the abiotic part of the environment (in inanimate nature), all factors can primarily be divided into physical and chemical. However, to understand the essence of the phenomena and processes under consideration, it is convenient to represent abiotic factors as a set of climatic, topographic, cosmic factors, as well as characteristics of the composition of the environment (aquatic, terrestrial or soil).

To the main climatic factors include solar energy, temperature, precipitation and humidity, environmental mobility, pressure, ionizing radiation.

Energy of sun propagates in space in the form of electromagnetic waves. For organisms, the wavelength of the perceived radiation, its intensity and duration of exposure are important. The illumination of the earth's surface varies significantly depending on the time of year, day, latitude, and the state of the atmosphere.

Due to the rotation of the Earth, light and dark periods periodically alternate. Flowering, seed germination in plants, migration, hibernation, animal reproduction and much more in nature are associated with the length of the day.

Temperature.

At temperatures below freezing, a living cell is damaged and dies, and at high temperatures, enzymes are denatured. The vast majority of plants and animals cannot withstand negative body temperatures. The upper temperature limit is rarely understood above 40-45 degrees.

Temperature, like light intensity, depends on latitude, season, time of day and slope exposure.

Precipitation and humidity.

Water is essential for life on Earth; in ecological terms, it is unique. Under almost identical geographical conditions on Earth, both a hot desert and a tropical forest exist. The difference is only in the annual amount of precipitation: in the first case 0.2 - 200 mm, and in the second 900 - 2000 mm.

Precipitation is closely related to air humidity. Dew and fog form in the ground layer of air, and at low temperatures, frost falls.

Land plants obtain water mainly from the soil. low precipitation, rapid drainage, intense evaporation, or a combination of these factors lead to drying out, and excess moisture leads to waterlogging and waterlogging of soils.

Air humidity as environmental factor at its extreme values, it enhances the effect of temperature on the body.

Air saturation with water vapor rarely reaches its maximum value. Humidity deficit is the difference between the maximum possible and actually existing saturation at a given temperature. This is one of the most important environmental parameters, since it characterizes two quantities at once: temperature and humidity. The higher the moisture deficit, the drier and warmer it is, and vice versa.

Precipitation regime is the most important factor determining the migration of pollutants in the natural environment and their leaching from the atmosphere.

Mobility of the environment.

The causes of the movement of air masses (wind) are primarily the unequal heating of the earth's surface, causing pressure changes, as well as the rotation of the Earth. The wind is directed towards warmer air. Wind is the most important factor in the spread of moisture, seeds, spores, chemical impurities, etc. over long distances.

Pressure.

Within globe There are permanent areas of high and low atmospheric pressure.

Periodically, areas of low pressure form in the atmosphere with powerful air currents moving in a spiral towards the center, which are called cyclones. It is typical for them a large number of precipitation and unstable weather. Opposite natural phenomena are called anticyclones. They are characterized by stable weather, weak winds and, in some cases, temperature inversions. During anticyclones, sometimes unfavorable meteorological conditions arise that contribute to the accumulation of pollutants in the surface layer of the atmosphere.

Ionizing radiation.

Under the influence of cosmic radiation, new nuclei of radioactive atoms are constantly being formed in the atmosphere, the main ones being carbon-14 and tritium. The radiation background of a landscape is one of the indispensable components of its climate. All living things on Earth have been exposed to radiation from Space throughout the history of existence and have adapted to this.

The influence of abiotic factors largely depends on the topographic characteristics of the area, which can greatly change both the climate and the characteristics of soil development. The main topographical factor is altitude. With altitude, average temperatures decrease, daily temperature differences increase, precipitation, wind speed and radiation intensity increase, and pressure decreases.

Another important topographic factor is the exposure (illumination) of the slope. In the Northern Hemisphere it is warmer on the southern slopes, and in the Southern Hemisphere it is warmer on the northern slopes. Another important factor is the steepness of the slope, which affects drainage. Water flows down the slopes, washing away the soil, reducing its layer. Terrain is one of the main factors influencing the transfer, dispersion or accumulation of impurities in the atmospheric air.

Our planet is not isolated from the processes occurring in outer space. The Earth periodically collides with asteroids, comes close to comets, and is hit by cosmic dust, meteorite substances, and various types of radiation from the Sun and stars.

Many factors have accumulated that confirm the influence of Space on life on Earth.

Important natural abiotic factors include fires, which, under a certain combination of climatic conditions, lead to complete or partial burning of terrestrial vegetation.

Biotic factors.

All living things surrounding an organism in its habitat constitute the biotic environment or biota. biotic factors are a set of influences of the life activity of some organisms on others.

The relationships between animals, plants, and microorganisms are extremely diverse. The main form of manifestation of these connections is the food relationships of organisms of various categories, which form the basis food chains, networks and trophic structure of biota.

In addition to food connections, spatial relationships also arise between plant and animal organisms.

Biotic factors affecting plants as primary producers of organic matter are divided into zoogenic and phytogenic.

Zoogenic biotic factors. The factors affecting the influence of animals on vegetation primarily include eating the whole plant or its individual organs. Eating branches and shoots by animals changes the shape of the tree crown. Plants damaged by animals acquire protective devices (thorns, thorns), form excess phytomass, and intensively grow the remaining leaves. There is also a positive influence of animals on the life processes of plants, for example, pollination by insects and birds.

Phytogenic biotic factors.

Plants, experiencing diverse influences from neighboring plants, simultaneously influence them themselves. Everywhere there is intertwining and fusion of roots, branches of neighboring crowns of other trees intertwining.

Any plant community, in turn, influences the totality of abiotic characteristics of its habitat.

Living organisms play a vital role in the processes of soil formation and functioning. First of all, these include green plants that extract nutrients from the soil and return them back with dying tissues. Vegetation creates a continuous flow of ash elements from the deeper layers of the soil to its surface, i.e. their biological migration.

The soil is constantly inhabited by many organisms of various groups. Moves and holes help mix and aerate the soil and facilitate root growth. Passing through the digestive tract of the worm, for example, the soil is crushed, mineral and organic components are mixed, and the soil structure is improved.