Age of Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the 18th century in history is called the Age of Enlightenment: scientific knowledge, which was previously the property of a narrow circle of scientists, has gone beyond universities and laboratories into secular salons It is no coincidence that the 18th century in history is called the Age of Enlightenment: scientific knowledge, previously the property of a narrow circle of scientists, went beyond universities and laboratories to the secular salons of Paris and London

Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, a small Thuringian town in Germany, where his father Johann Ambrosius served as the town musician and his uncle Johann Christoph as organist. Happy childhood It ended for him at the age of nine, when he lost his mother, and a year later his father. The orphan was taken into his modest home by his elder brother, an organist in nearby Ohrdruf; there the boy went back to school and continued his music studies with his brother. Johann Sebastian spent 5 years in Ohrdruf. Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, a small Thuringian town in Germany, where his father Johann Ambrosius served as the city musician and his uncle Johann Christoph as organist. A happy childhood ended for him at the age of nine, when he lost his mother, and a year later his father. The orphan was taken into his modest home by his elder brother, an organist in nearby Ohrdruf; there the boy went back to school and continued his music studies with his brother. Johann Sebastian spent 5 years in Ohrdruf.

Johann Sebastian Bach In 1702, at the age of 17, Bach returned to Thuringia and, after serving briefly as a “footman and violinist” at the Weimar court, received a position as organist of the New Church in Arnstadt, a city where the Bachs served both before and after him, until Thanks to his brilliant test performance, he was immediately given a salary that was much higher than what his relatives were paid. In 1702, at the age of 17, Bach returned to Thuringia and, after serving briefly as a “footman and violinist” at the Weimar court, received a position as organist of the New Church in Arnstadt, a city where the Bachs served both before and after him, until thanks brilliantly Having passed his test performance, he was immediately given a salary that was much higher than what his relatives were paid.

Johann Sebastian Bach He remained in Arnstadt until 1707, leaving the city in 1705 to attend the famous “evening concerts” given in Lübeck, in the north of the country, by the brilliant organist and composer Dietrich Buxtehude. Apparently Lübeck was so interesting that Bach spent four months there instead of the four weeks he had asked for as leave. The subsequent troubles in the service, as well as dissatisfaction with the weak and untrained Arnstadt church choir, which he was obliged to lead, forced Bach to look for a new place. He remained in Arnstadt until 1707, leaving the city in 1705 to attend the famous "evening concerts" given in Lübeck, in the north of the country, by the brilliant organist and composer Dietrich Buxtehude. Apparently Lübeck was so interesting that Bach spent four months there instead of the four weeks he had asked for as leave. The subsequent troubles in the service, as well as dissatisfaction with the weak and untrained Arnstadt church choir, which he was obliged to lead, forced Bach to look for a new place.

Johann Sebastian Bach 1723 lives with his family in Leipzig. Here he creates his best works lives with his family in Leipzig. Here he creates his best works. on his artistic development influenced by acquaintance with the works of outstanding Italian masters, especially Antonio Vivaldi, whose orchestral concertos Bach arranged for keyboard instruments: such work helped him master the art of expressive melody, improve harmonic writing, and develop a sense of form. His artistic development was influenced by his acquaintance with the works of outstanding Italian masters, especially Antonio Vivaldi, whose orchestral concertos Bach arranged for keyboard instruments: such work helped him master the art of expressive melody, improve harmonic writing, and develop a sense of form.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Austrian composer. Had a phenomenal musical ear and memory. He performed as a virtuoso harpsichordist, violinist, organist, conductor, and improvised brilliantly. He began his music studies under the guidance of his father L. Mozart. His first compositions appeared at the age of 5, and he toured triumphantly in Germany, Austria, France, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Italy. In 1765 his 1st symphony was performed in London. Austrian composer. He had a phenomenal ear for music and memory. He performed as a virtuoso harpsichordist, violinist, organist, conductor, and improvised brilliantly. He began his music studies under the guidance of his father L. Mozart. His first compositions appeared at the age of 5, and he toured triumphantly in Germany, Austria, France, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Italy. In 1765 his 1st symphony was performed in London.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Mozart created St. 600 works of various genres. The most important area of ​​his creativity Musical Theatre. Mozart's work constituted an era in the development of opera. Mozart mastered almost all contemporary opera genres. Mozart created St. 600 works of various genres. The most important area of ​​his creativity is musical theater. Mozart's work constituted an era in the development of opera. Mozart mastered almost all contemporary opera genres.

Ludwig van Beethoven Major works 9 symphonies 11 overtures 5 piano concertos Violin concerto 16 string quartets 6 trios for strings, winds and mixed ensembles 6 youthful piano sonatas 32 piano sonatas (composed in Vienna) 10 violin sonatas and piano 5 sonatas for cello and piano 32 variations (C minor) Bagatelles, rondos, ecosaises, minuets and other pieces for piano (about 60) Opera Fidelio Solemn Mass Arrangements folk songs(Scottish, Irish, Welsh) About 40 songs with lyrics by various authors

Ludwig van Beethoven Beethoven was born in Bonn, probably on December 16, 1770 (baptized on December 17). In addition to German blood, Flemish blood also flowed in his veins: the composer’s paternal grandfather, also Ludwig, was born in 1712 in Malin (Flanders). At the age of eight, little Beethoven gave his first concert in the city of Cologne. The boy's concerts took place in other cities. The father, seeing that he could no longer teach his son anything, stopped teaching him, and when the boy was ten years old, he took him away from school. Beethoven was born in Bonn, presumably on December 16, 1770 (baptized on December 17). In addition to German blood, Flemish blood also flowed in his veins: the composer’s paternal grandfather, also Ludwig, was born in 1712 in Malin (Flanders). At the age of eight, little Beethoven gave his first concert in the city of Cologne. The boy's concerts took place in other cities. The father, seeing that he could no longer teach his son anything, stopped teaching him, and when the boy was ten years old, he took him out of school

Musical classicism and the main stages of its development

Classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) - style in art XVII– XVIII centuries The name "classicism" comes from an appeal to classical antiquity as the highest standard of aesthetic perfection. Representatives of classicism drew their aesthetic ideal from examples of ancient art. Classicism was based on the belief in the rationality of existence, in the presence of order and harmony in nature and the inner world of man. The aesthetics of classicism contains a sum of mandatory strict rules that a work of art must meet. The most important of them are the requirement for a balance of beauty and truth, logical clarity, harmony and completeness of composition, strict proportions, and a clear distinction between genres.

There are 2 stages in the development of classicism:

Classicism of the 17th century, which developed partly in the fight against Baroque art, partly in interaction with it.

Enlightenment classicism of the 18th century.

Classicism of the 17th century is in many ways the antithesis of Baroque. It receives its most complete expression in France. This was the heyday of the absolute monarchy, which provided the highest patronage to court art and demanded pomp and splendor from it. The top French classicism in the field of theatrical art were the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, as well as the comedies of Moliere, on whose work Lully relied. His “lyrical tragedies” bear the mark of the influence of classicism (strict logic of construction, heroism, sustained character), although they also have baroque features - the pomp of his operas, the abundance of dances, processions, and choirs.

The classicism of the 18th century coincided with the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is a broad movement in philosophy, literature, and art that covered all European countries. The name “Enlightenment” is explained by the fact that the philosophers of this era (Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau) sought to enlighten their fellow citizens, tried to solve issues of the structure of human society, human nature, and his rights. The Enlightenmentists proceeded from the idea of ​​the omnipotence of the human mind. Faith in man, in his mind, determines the bright, optimistic attitude inherent in the views of the figures of the Enlightenment.

Opera is at the center of musical and aesthetic debates. French encyclopedists considered it a genre in which the synthesis of arts that existed in the ancient theater should be restored. This idea formed the basis of K.V.’s opera reform. Gluck.

The great achievement of educational classicism is the creation of the genre of symphony (sonata-symphonic cycle) and sonata form, which is associated with the work of composers of the Mannheim school. The Mannheim School developed in Mannheim (Germany) in the middle of the 18th century on the basis of the court chapel, in which mainly Czech musicians worked (the largest representative was the Czech Jan Stamitz). In the work of composers of the Mannheim school, the 4-movement structure of the symphony and the classical composition of the orchestra were established.

The Mannheim school became the predecessor of the Viennese classical school - a musical direction that denotes the work of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. In the work of the Viennese classics, the sonata-symphonic cycle, which became classical, as well as the genres of chamber ensemble and concert, were finally formed.

Among the instrumental genres, various types of everyday entertainment music were especially popular - serenades, divertissements, sounded in the open air in evening time. Divertimento (French entertainment) - instrumental multi-movement works for a chamber ensemble or orchestra, combining the features of a sonata and suite and close to a serenade and nocturne.

K.V. Gluck - the great reformer opera house

Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714 - 1787) – German by origin (born in Erasbach (Bavaria, Germany)), however, is one of prominent representatives Viennese classical school.

Gluck's reform activities took place in Vienna and Paris and were carried out in line with the aesthetics of classicism. In total, Gluck wrote about 40 operas - Italian and French, buffa and seria, traditional and innovative. It was thanks to the latter that he secured a prominent place in the history of music.

The principles of Gluck's reform are set out in his preface to the score of the opera Alceste. They boil down to the following:

Music should express poetic text opera, it cannot exist on its own, outside of dramatic action. Thus, Gluck significantly increases the role of the literary and dramatic basis of the opera, subordinating the music to the drama.

Opera should have a moral impact on a person, hence the appeal to ancient subjects with their high pathos and nobility (“Orpheus and Eurydice”, “Paris and Helen”, “Iphigenia in Aulis”). G. Berlioz called Gluck “Aeschylus of music.”

Opera must comply with “the three great principles of beauty in all forms of art” - “simplicity, truth and naturalness.” It is necessary to rid the opera of excessive virtuosity and vocal ornamentation (inherent in Italian opera), and intricate plots.

There should not be a sharp contrast between the aria and the recitative. Gluck replaces the secco recitative with an accompanied one, as a result of which it approaches an aria (in the traditional opera seria, recitatives served only as a link between concert numbers).

Gluck also interprets arias in a new way: he introduces features of improvisational freedom, connects the development of musical material with changes psychological state hero. Arias, recitatives and choruses are combined into large dramatic scenes.

The overture should anticipate the content of the opera and introduce listeners into its atmosphere.

The ballet should not be an insert number that is not connected with the action of the opera. Its introduction should be conditioned by the course of the dramatic action.

Most of these principles were embodied in the opera “Orpheus and Eurydice” (premiere in 1762). This opera marks the beginning of a new stage not only in Gluck's work, but also in the history of the entire European opera. Orpheus was followed by another of his innovative operas, Alceste (1767).

In Paris, Gluck wrote other reform operas: Iphigenia in Aulis (1774), Armida (1777), Iphigenia in Tauris (1779). The production of each of them turned into a grandiose event in the life of Paris, causing heated controversy between the “Gluckists” and the “Piccinists” - supporters of traditional Italian opera, which was personified by the Neapolitan composer Nicolo Piccini (1728 - 1800). Gluck's victory in this controversy was marked by the triumph of his opera Iphigenia in Tauris.

Thus, Gluck turned opera into an art of high educational ideals, imbued it with deep moral content, and revealed genuine human feelings. Gluck's operatic reform had a fruitful influence on both his contemporaries and subsequent generations of composers (especially the Viennese classics).

In music by the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The language that the whole of Europe will then speak begins to take shape. The first were German composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685--1750) and George Frideric Handel (1685--1759) G.V. Grinenko. Reader on the history of world culture. - M.: 1998, p.-398..

The great German composer and organist Bach worked in all musical genres except opera. He is an unsurpassed master of the symphony. His orchestral music includes concertos for keyboards and violin, and orchestral suites. Bach's music for clavier and organ, his fugues and chorales are significant.

Like Bach, Handel used biblical scenes for his works. His most famous works are the oratorios “Israel in Egypt” and “Messiah”. Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as organ concerts, sonatas, and suites.

The Viennese classical school and its most prominent masters - Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven - had a huge influence on the musical art of Europe. Viennese classics rethought and made everything sound new musical genres and shapes.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), the teacher of Mozart and Beethoven, is called the “Father of the Symphony.” He created more than 100 symphonies. Many of them are based on themes of folk songs and dances, which the composer developed with amazing skill. The pinnacle of his work is the “12 London Symphonies,” written during the composer’s triumphant trips to England in the 90s. Haydn wrote many wonderful quartets and keyboard sonatas, over 20 operas, 14 masses, a large number of songs and other works, and brought a symphony and quartet sonata to classical perfection. At the end creative path he created two monumental oratorios - “The Creation of the World” and “The Seasons”, which express thoughts about the greatness of the universe human life.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) amazed with his extraordinary abilities even in childhood: he was a virtuoso performer, composed in large quantities music. Wolfgang's extraordinary abilities developed under the guidance of his father, violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. Since 1781, Mozart has lived in Vienna, where his creative genius flourished. In the operas "The Abduction from the Seraglio", "The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni", "The Magic Flute" Mozart with amazing skill creates diverse and lively human characters, shows life in its contrasts, moving from jokes to deep seriousness, from fun - to subtle poetic lyrics.

The same qualities are inherent in his symphonies, sonatas, concerts, and quartets, in which he creates the highest classical examples of genres. The pinnacles of classical symphonism were his three symphonies (Mozart wrote about 50 in total): “E flat major” (No. 39) - a person’s life is full of joy, play, cheerful dance movement; "G minor" (No. 40) - deep lyrical poetry of the movement of the human soul, the drama of its aspirations; “C major” (No. 41), called “Jupiter” by contemporaries, embraces the whole world with its contrasts and contradictions, affirming the rationality and harmony of its structure.

Mozart's music represents the highest achievement of classicism in the perfection of melodies and forms.

“Music should strike fire from human hearts,” said Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770-1827), whose work belongs to the highest achievements of human genius. A man of republican views, he affirmed the dignity of the individual artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. These are his only opera “Fidelio” and the overtures “Egmont”, “Leonora”, “Coriapan”, piano sonata No. 23. The conquest of freedom as a result of persistent struggle - that's main idea his creativity.

All mature creative life Beethoven is connected with Vienna, where as a young man he delighted Mozart with his playing, studied with Haydn, and here became famous as a pianist. The spontaneous power of dramatic clashes, the sublimity of philosophical lyrics, rich, sometimes rude humor - we can find all this in the infinitely rich world of his sonatas (he wrote 32 sonatas in total). The lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth (“Moonlight”) and Seventeenth sonatas reflected the composer’s despair during the most difficult period of his life, when Beethoven was close to suicide due to hearing loss. But the crisis was overcome: the appearance of the Third ("Heroic") Symphony marked the victory of human will. In the period from 1803 to 1813. he created the majority symphonic works. The variety of creative endeavors is truly limitless. The composer was also attracted to chamber genres ( vocal cycle"To a distant beloved"). Beethoven seeks to penetrate the hidden depths inner world person.

The apotheosis of his work is the Ninth (“Choral”) Symphony and the Solemn Mass. The Ninth Symphony includes an excerpt from Schiller's "Ode to Joy", chosen as the anthem of Europe.

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.

During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of ​​God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art movements

In addition to philosophy, there was also art culture era of Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. Incarnation better world turned out to be parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.

The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures ancient mythology, and the main plots are love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, and paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theater

The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

Main literary genre The 18th century became a novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found new uniform to express their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church orders and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, sentimental piece Johann Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther" main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu's Persian Letters. Documentary novels appeared in the genre travel notes or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for already at the beginning of the new 19th century domestic literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, experienced its golden age.

Music

It was during the Enlightenment that the modern musical language emerged. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered today consummate master polyphony. Another German composer, George Handel, wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories (characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt,” “Saul,” “Messiah”).

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig Van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought the previous musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. Culture of the Enlightenment and any other period human history has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassedly, mastering these instruments in the most early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic Beethoven was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. The composer created most of his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).

Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moon” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus cultural development. England has become a clear example social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

German culture XVIII centuries existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms changes in the social and state system, excluding brutal violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.

35. Musical art during the Age of Enlightenment

Musical art can be placed on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.

The development of musical art is primarily associated with the names of such great composers as J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel, J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. V. Beethoven and etc.

The German composer, organist and harpsichordist was an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Johann Sebastian Bach(1685–1750). His works were imbued with deep philosophical meaning and high ethics. He was able to summarize the achievements in musical art that his predecessors had achieved. His most famous works are “The Well-Tempered Clavier” (1722–1744), “The St. John Passion” (1724), “The St. Matthew Passion” (1727 and 1729), many concerts and cantatas, and the Mass minor ( 1747–1749) etc.

Unlike J. S. Bach, who did not write a single opera, the German composer and organist George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) belong to more than forty operas. As well as works on biblical themes (oratorios “Israel in Egypt” (1739), “Saul” (1739), “Messiah” (1742), “Samson” (1743), “Judas Maccabee” (1747), etc.), organ concerts, sonatas, suites, etc.

The great Austrian composer was a master of classical instrumental genres such as symphonies, quartets, as well as sonata forms.

Joseph Haydn (1732–1809). It was thanks to him that the classical composition of the orchestra was formed. He owns several oratorios (“The Seasons” (1801), “The Creation of the World” (1798)), 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, 14 messitas, etc.

Another Austrian composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), was a child prodigy, thanks to which he became famous in early childhood. He wrote over 20 operas, including the famous “The Marriage of Figaro” (1786), “Don Giovanni” (1787), “The Magic Flute” (1791), more than 50 symphonies, many concerts, piano works(sonatas, fantasies, variations), unfinished “Requiem” (1791), songs, masses, etc.

A difficult fate, which left its mark on all creativity, was German composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827). His genius manifested itself already in childhood and did not leave him even in the terrible trouble for any composer and musician - hearing loss. His works have a philosophical character. Many works were influenced by his republican views as a composer. Beethoven owns nine symphonies, instrumental sonatas (Moonlight, Pathétique), sixteen string quartets, ensembles, the opera Fidelio, overtures (Egmont, Coriolanus), concertos for piano and orchestra and other works.

His famous expression: “Music should strike fire from people’s hearts.” He followed this idea for the rest of his life.