Introduction

Ancient Rome left a rich cultural heritage that has become part of the life and culture of modern mankind. The majestic remains of Roman cities, buildings, theaters, amphitheatres, circuses, roads, aqueducts and bridges, baths and basilicas, triumphal arches and columns, temples and porticos, port facilities and military camps, high-rise buildings and luxurious villas amaze modern man not only with their splendor , good technology, quality of construction, rational architecture, but also aesthetic value. In all this, there is a real connection between Roman antiquity and modern reality, a visible proof that Roman civilization formed the basis of European culture, and through it of all modern civilization as a whole.

Roman culture is an integral part of ancient. In many ways, relying on Greek culture, Roman culture was able to develop some of its achievements, to introduce something new, inherent only to the Roman state. During its heyday, Ancient Rome united the entire Mediterranean, including Greece, its influence, its culture spread to a significant part of Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, etc. The heart of this huge state was Italy, located in the very center of the Mediterranean world.

Cultural heritage of Rome

Literature, poetry, theater

Like many other peoples, among the Romans, the actual literary work of individual writers was preceded by oral folk art. Unfortunately, the works of Roman folk art were not written down and have not been preserved, with the exception of insignificant fragments. On this accidental basis, some scholars considered the Romans incapable of poetic creativity, a practical and dry people.

However, both those insignificant fragments of folk poetry that have come down to our time, and indirect indications, indicate that the Romans, like other peoples, expressed their feelings in poetic form. During the work, labor songs were sung, which created the rhythm of the labor process, for example, “the song of rowers”. Prayers and appeals to the gods were composed in poetic form, which made them easier to remember. For example, the anthem of the “brothers of the plowmen”, the anthem of the priestly college of horses (Salievs) has been preserved. These hymns contained requests to the gods to fertilize the earth, avert famine and bad weather, ensure a rich harvest, the well-being of farmers and shepherds.

At the funeral, they performed special funeral songs, laments (they were called nennii), where grief was expressed for the deceased and his merits were listed. There was a custom to put tombstones with an inscription, which mentioned the merits of the deceased.

At feasts, feast songs were sung in which the exploits of heroes, especially legendary ancestors, were praised. Drinking songs included legends, sometimes mixed with real events about the heroic past of Rome. Many legends of drinking songs were borrowed by later Roman historians (for example, Titus Livius), included by them in their historical works and acquired the appearance of historical facts.

Folk poetic works were written in a special meter, the so-called Saturnian verse, close in rhythm to the epic verses of other peoples.

There is evidence of the beginnings of dramatic poetry among the Romans. During village harvest festivals, mummery rural youth arranged merry games, threw witticisms, improvised or memorized mocking rhymes. These verses also sometimes contained biting ridicule, especially at the address of rich, mean or cruel people. The exchange of these verses—they were called fescennins—already contains elements of dialogue, of dramatic action.

Along with the Fescennins, the comedy of masks - Atellana (from the name of the city in Campania - Atella) is gaining popularity. Her heroes were merry types of gluttons, boastful razin, stupid old men. The content of the atellana was cheerful, it reflected the daily life of small towns and villages with their uncomplicated way of life.

Along with poetry, Roman prose also makes its first steps. The college of pontiffs kept weather records of the largest events, annals, contracts were concluded, the texts of which were written in Latin. P IV century. BC e. some politicians began to write down their speeches and publish them for the public to read.

Roman comedy and tragedy developed largely under the influence of Greek models and were considered non-Roman genres. The original Roman literary genre was the genre of the so-called satura. The word satura meant a dish filled with various fruits. Then satura began to be called a mixture of different verses - long and short, written in Saturn and other sizes.

The poet Ennius called the word satura his collection of poems, half entertaining, half instructive.

As a literary genre, satura was greatly developed in the work of Gaius Lucilius. During his long life (180-102 BC), Lucilius wrote 30 books of saturas. In them, he denounces the vices of contemporary society; covetousness, bribery, moral decay, perjury, greed.

The widespread development of slavery, the flourishing of the economy, the successful conquests of Rome led to the growth of wealth, their accumulation in a few hands, the pursuit of them, the moral decay of the oligarchs. Real life gave plots for the saturas of Lucilius, which laid the foundation for the realistic trend in Roman literature. After Lucilius, the genre of satura was finally defined as a small accusatory work.

Drama and poetry were the main, but not the only, types of Latin literature. At the same time, prose also developed. For a long time, until the II century. BC e., writings in prose were few and consisted mainly of brief records of historical events and legal norms. Like early poetry, early Roman prose was imitative. The first literary works were written in Greek, although Roman history was also expounded on them.

The Roman Empire (the ancient constitutional Latin name "Senatus Populusque Romanus": "The Senate and the people of Rome") - this is how the people and cities of Rome are now called. The dates of its creation are not known for certain, historians attribute the Roman Empire to the period between the 8th century BC. BC. and the 7th century AD before the rise of the Byzantine Empire.

The rule of the empire changed over time from a monarchy to a republic and finally to an empire. During its greatest expansion under Emperor Trajan, in 117, the Roman Empire expanded its dominions over three continents along the shores of the Mediterranean, from Gaul and large parts of Britain to the regions around the Black Sea. This created the dominant position of Rome throughout the Mediterranean.

Historical overview of the Roman Empire

The empire was divided into provinces until late antiquity as the Romans began to expand their power outside of Italy in the 3rd century BC (the first province was Sicily). However, the real power lay with the cities of the Empire, organized as semi-autonomous civil communities. This system allowed the Romans to manage the state with a very small number of members of the central administration.

Trade, art and culture flourished during the Roman Empire, especially during the imperial period, in some areas the quality of life and the achieved standard of living of the population surpassed that of Europe and North Africa, a few centuries later.

The empire had a great influence not only on the territories it controlled, but also on the territories beyond its borders. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, this influence was mixed with Greco-Hellenistic motifs. Western Europe, on the other hand, became Latinised.

Latin became the official language throughout the empire (supplemented by Ancient Greek in the East), although other languages ​​also existed. This legacy of the Roman Empire lasted long after its end: for centuries, Latin was the language of educated people throughout Western and Central Europe until the Baroque period. Latin is still the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. Even today, many sciences such as biology, medicine and law use and even recreate Latin terminology. On the basis of Latin, the modern "Romance" languages ​​of Europe appeared: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. In addition, there are many Latin loanwords in German and Slavic.

In addition to the Romance languages, the legal and political system of Europe, in particular civil law, borrowed heavily from Roman law. The legal system in Ancient Rome included the main civil and criminal procedural rules in legal history.

The history of the Roman Empire can be roughly divided into the following phases:

• Time of Roman imperialism: from 753 BC before 509 BC
• Roman Republic: from 509 BC until the fall of the republic in civil wars in 133 BC.
• Principate or (early and high) Roman Empire: from 27 BC until the Imperial Crisis of the 3rd century (235-284/285, also known as "the time of the soldier emperors")
• Late antiquity: from 284/285 to VI-VII centuries. (also called "Dominat" in earlier studies). This was the period of the Great Migration of Nations (375-568) and the division of the empire (395), and then the fall of the Roman Empire (476-480) into Western and Eastern and the transition to the Byzantine Empire

Roman Empire and early Republic

Ancient Roman tradition dates the founding of Rome between 814 and 728 BC, but mostly around 750 BC. - 753 BC, this period later became the canonical beginning of the Roman era. The first mentions begin with the records of the scholar Mark Terentius Varro (116-27 BC), the oldest traces of a settlement were noted until the 10th century BC, and the earliest evidence of the construction of a city dates probably from the last third 7th century BC.

The new city state soon found itself under Etruscan rule; this phase of its development is called the Roman Empire. The lands of Rome were extremely barren, due to marshy and sandy soil, thus agriculture was not profitable and practically non-existent. Rome was more dependent on the Etruscans in economic terms, since they controlled two important trade routes: Via Latina and Via Salaria (salt road). The introduction of the ancient Roman customs tariff on trade goods also contributed to economic success.

Various legends want to connect the era of the Roman Kingdom with the history of Troy. For example, it is believed that the surviving Trojan Aeneas, the son of Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite, after a long voyage (similar to the Odyssey of the Greek Odysseus) comes to Lazio. The earliest tradition of this myth goes back to Timaeus of Tauromenia, the Roman poet Virgil wrote the national epic of the Romans, the Aeneids, during the time of Augustus.

Culturally, the Romans were heavily influenced by the Etruscans; Greek elements of culture were also reflected in them. Examples are Etruscan figures, the Greek Etruscan script from which the Latin alphabet develops, the Etruscan religion depicting a liver and a bird, and the funeral ritual of gladiators, also borrowed. Rome exerted its strong influence on Italy after 500 BC.

The last Roman and Etruscan king, Tarquinius the Proud, ruled in 509 BC. He was overthrown, according to legend, by the Roman people, led by Lucius Junius Brutus of Rome, because one of his sons dishonored a Roman woman named Lucretia. The year 509 has not been historically determined and is probably fixed, in contrast to later times, after the fall of the Peisistratids at Athens in 510 BC.

The empire, according to the data, did not change until about 475 BC.

In the Roman Republic ("Republic" "res publica": "public matter")

The Roman state grew over the years and was constantly changing. Polybius, a Greek scholar, characterized it as a mixture of monarchy (positions such as consul), nobility (senate), and democracy. At the beginning, the praetor held the highest post, then he annually appointed two consuls, who had the highest authority, were at the highest level of government. An important role was played by the assembly of the Roman nobility, the Senate. In addition, there were several popular assemblies - Comitia, which were also important, especially in matters of war, peace and the adoption of new laws. The first more or less enduring document in the history of Rome is the approval of the law of the twelve councils by 450 BC.

The central place of the Roman Republic was the representative assembly "Roman Forum", which served as a place of political, religious and social gatherings.

At that time, the Roman social order also developed and changed slowly over the centuries. At the top of the government were the ancient families of Rome, the patrician landowners who were the most politically powerful. But the majority of the population consisted of plebeians, who had only partial political rights. Slaves were not seen as human beings but as "talking instruments" so they had no rights but could gain freedom. Relations between patricians and plebeians were regulated by the system.

At first, only patricians were admitted to the highest positions in the state, which gave their owners prestige and glory, while all free citizens had to perform military service.

After a political struggle that lasted about 150 years and in which the plebeians were said to be condemned to "the lot of the common people", in 367 BC, they finally came to almost political justice, however, only a few plebeian families succeeded join the ruling class.

Expansion of the Roman Empire in Italy

Rome began a deliberate expansion into central Italy (the conquest of Veii 396 BC), but it had to face serious setbacks. The "Galata Tower" near Brennus left broken morale after the battle of Allia on July 18 (probably) 387 BC. Since this event entered the history of Rome under the name "rainy day". This was followed by the Samnite Wars (343-341 BC, 326-304 BC, 298-290 BC) and the Latin Wars (340-338 BC). e.). Ultimately, Rome created a wide network of alliances. For example, colonies were established in strategic locations and alliances were made with several Italian tribes, but they did not receive Roman citizenship.

From this period of its history, Rome became a cohesive state with a powerful army and a strong desire for expansion. This laid the foundation for his further ascent.

Competing powers present in the Italian peninsula: Etruscan cities north of Rome, Celts in the Po Valley, and Greek colonies in southern Italy. In the 3rd century BC, Rome opposed the Samnites and other Italic Po tribes. Gradually, the entire peninsula was annexed to Rome (with the exception of northern Italy, which was later annexed). In the south, the Republic was restored by 275 BC, after the victory in the Pyrrhic War that defeated the Hellenic hegemon of Epirus, Pyrrhus. However, with this expansion, Rome came into conflict with the previously friendly Carthage (modern Tunisia), which led to the outbreak of the Punic War.

The Punic Wars and the expansion of Rome in the eastern Mediterranean

In the First Punic War (264-241 BC), Rome violated the agreement with Carthage on the division of interests in Sicily and extended its sphere of influence beyond the boundaries of the Carthaginian sphere of influence. After Carthage, thus provoking, attacked and defeated the Romans from the sea, Rome expanded its navy to successfully counter the Carthaginian naval flotilla.

After several setbacks and battles with varying success, Rome finally managed to gain a foothold, in particular in Sicily, and defeated the Carthaginian fleet several times. Carthage lost all its Sicilian possessions (later Sardinia and Corsica) in a peace treaty. Henceforth, the main goal of Carthaginian policy was to compensate for the consequences of this defeat. The influential Carthaginian Barcid family built a kind of colonial empire in Spain, the resources of which could be used to fight against Rome.

In the Second Punic War (218-201 BC), the Carthaginian strategist Hannibal almost succeeded in bringing Rome to its knees by using siege as the main instrument of his war effort, the Greek colony of Saguntum. After the fall of Saguntum and the refusal of the government in Carthage to extradite Hannibal, the Roman reaction followed in this war. Hannibal took a land route through southern Gaul, crossed the Alps and invaded Italy with an army, destroying several Roman armies one by one. In particular, the defeat at Cannae (216 BC) was painful for the Romans: it was the heaviest defeat in Roman history, but Hannibal could not destroy Rome's alliance system in Italy, so despite his victories, the members of the alliance remained isolated. Roman general Scipio in 204 BC invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal in 202 BC at Zama. Carthage lost all non-African possessions and its fleet. Thus, he was eliminated as a factor of strength, while Rome increasingly exercised influence over its new province of Spain.

Hellenistic empire around 200 BC

The victory over Carthage in the 1st and 2nd Punic Wars ensured the superiority of Rome in the western Mediterranean. In addition to its new role as a naval flotilla, the conquered silver mines in Spain and the huge reparations that Carthage had to pay contributed to the enrichment of Rome. In the period from 200 BC. in the next century, Roman interference in the political game of the Hellenic empires also increased: the great powers were unable to reach a peace agreement. This was followed by conflicts with the Antigonid dynasty, Rome from 200 to 197. BC. intervened and to reduce Macedonian influence in Greece.

After a request for help from Asia Minor, the Roman-Syrian War (192-188 BC) was against the empire of the Hellenic Seleucid dynasty, Antiochus III was forced to go to Rome, abandoning most of his possessions in Asia Minor. Rome thus became a "de facto dominion" in the eastern Mediterranean. Macedonian attempts to rebuild the old hegemony led to war.

In 168 BC, the Macedonians were finally defeated along with their king Perseus, and their empire collapsed in 148 BC, and, in 146 BC, was made a Roman province as and Greece (from 27 BC, province of Achaia, formerly Macedonian) and the new Roman province of Africa after the destruction of Carthage, which regained power until the third Punic War (149-146 BC) in 133 BC The same status was given to the remnant of the Seleucid Empire, which was no longer viable and surrendered to Pompey, who rebuilt Syria into the Eastern Province. Only Ptolemaic Egypt, which became a Roman protectorate, retained its independence. Roman expansion stopped on the border of the Parthian Empire, here Rome faced an equal opponent in the next few centuries.

In the new provinces, especially in the wealthy Hellenic coastal regions, the tax was collected by private "societies" ("societates publicanorum") of the Roman nobility and patricians. Even though they paid a fixed amount to the government and were able to save more income, it still led to excessive taxes, which worsened the economy of these areas and led to repeated riots. These taxes can be found, for example, in the Bible (tax collector, publican). As a result of Roman successes, the amount of free money increased significantly, as did the number of slaves. In particular, slavery played an important role in the Roman economy, and slaves were engaged in very different activities, but, at the same time, had the opportunity to gain freedom.

Despite the brilliant foreign policy achievements of Rome, the republican order was gradually collapsing from within.

Period of revolutions and civil wars

The republic was formed from the middle of the II century BC. An intra-state political crisis that eventually led to an era of civil wars and should end with the disappearance of the former state form of government. Initially, there was a call for reforms, especially in the agricultural sector. The Romans used part of the country conquered during the war to transfer state property and left it to needy citizens for use. To avoid the appropriation of large agricultural holdings by a few citizens, land holdings were officially limited to 500 yugers.

However, this law could not be applied. Wealthy citizens took huge estates. This became a problem, at the latest, when practically all the land in Italy had been taken away, and at the same time, more and more slaves were pouring into the country as a result of victorious wars. The peasants and artisans of the plebeian class could not compete with the incoming slave army, which grew steadily as a result of numerous wars. At the same time, due to numerous wars outside of Italy, they were forced to be absent for a long time, which made it even more difficult to maintain the local economy. On the other hand, landowners increased their landholdings by buying unprofitable farms or forcibly evicting their owners. The impoverishment of the wider masses led to the resettlement of the rural population and increased discontent.

Other groups of plebeians who excelled in trade demanded more rights. The land use reform of the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, designed to help the poor to receive land and income, did not materialize due to the resistance of the conservative part of the Senate. The underlying conflict persists: in the Populares, representatives of the plebeians and peasants and the optimates fight against the conservative aristocratic party to secure their rights and freedoms.

Tiberius Gracchus was killed, his brother Gaius saw no other way out, and in 121 BC. committed suicide. Street fighting and political assassinations took place every day. In addition, internal tension in the alliance system of Rome began to increase markedly, so that from 91 to 89 years. BC. this led to the so-called Allied War. Eventually the allies were given Roman citizenship. Then there was 88 BC. with the infamous night of Ephesus. After killing tens of thousands of Roman settlers in Asia Minor, Rome went to war against Mithridates of Pontus and defeated him after several years of struggle.

These events were followed by the outbreak of civil war in Rome, in which plebeians and patricians clashed again. They opposed each other in bloody pogroms and legislative norms. Sulla remained victorious and established a dictatorship to re-consolidate republican senatorial rule.

But this decision had no real implementation, especially since Sulla soon resigned, and the old forces again began confrontation. The consequences of violations of the law led to a permanent internal weakening of the republic, but they were able to achieve the same in foreign policy and grandiose successes, and in particular with the annexation of the Seleucid Empire and the reorganization of the East by Gnaeus Pompey the Great.

Finally, the crisis of senate dominance ended with the first triumvirate: the successful military leader Gnaeus Pompey the Great (the senate recognizes his merits), the ambitious and wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus entered into an unofficial alliance to succeed in their interests. After the death of Crassus in the campaign against Parterrangen, former friends Caesar and Pompey fought for power in the state (49-46 BC) and Pompey sided with the Senate. After Caesar won on August 9, 48 BC and took control of the western part of the empire, at Farsalos in Greece. Pompey was killed shortly after his escape to Egypt.

After further campaigns in Egypt, Asia Minor, Africa and Spain, where the last Republicans were exterminated, the Republic collapsed. In 46 BC. e. Caesar created the Julian calendar, which replaced the obsolete calendar. In February 45 BC, Caesar was appointed "dictator for life". Only his assassination on the March marches by a group of conspirators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, prevented the republic from becoming a dictatorship.

After the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC. the supporters of the Republic failed to restore the old republican constitution. In the civil war that has now broken out, after the formation of the second triumvirate, Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) and Mark Antony were victorious at the Battle of Philippi against Brutus and Cassius. After the destruction of the last member of Sextus Pompey in Sicily and the recognition of the impotence of the third triumvirate, Mark Aemilius Lepidus, Octavian and Mark Antony entered the struggle against each other.

In the battle of Actium, Octavian won in 31 BC. Mark Antony and the Egyptian ruler Cleopatra supporting him. Thus wealthy Egypt becomes part of the Roman Empire and remains the "granary of the empire" for centuries.

The entire area around the Mediterranean Sea was under Roman rule.

Early imperial period (Principate)

Octavian Augustus became an opponent of Caesar in an effort to gain sole power. But, unlike Caesar, Octavian did not try to achieve this goal by imposing a dictatorship. Rather, Octavian formalized the old republican constitution and consolidated his position by taking on various positions, delegating special powers, and most of all, accepting years of command of numerous legions in overcrowded provinces. The old senatorial nobility could recognize Octavian as their ruler, especially since the main republican dynasties had already been eliminated. The Senate saw in Octavian the "Principle", "the first citizen of the state". The structure of the constitution founded by Octavian differs in essential principles from the old republican constitution, which is why it is also called "Principate". Octavian received in 27 BC from the Senate the name "Augustus" ("exalted").

Also in the imperial period, many institutions of the republic were preserved: for example, the senate, the provincial administration and the priesthood. These political decision bureaus became more or less administrative representations. The social order of the republic began to change under Augustus, members of new strata, especially from Italy and the provinces, rose to the still high positions of senators on an equal footing with the Romans. Emperors had the right to appoint governors, which created a certain permeability of social barriers. (They can also confer the honorary title of patrician on plebeian senators.) It also made it easier for non-citizens of Rome to obtain citizenship.

At this time, the Roman Empire already dominated the entire Mediterranean. The west and south of Germany belonged to the Roman Empire; the expansion to the northeast begun under Augustus was only halted by the battle of Varus in the 9th year. Subsequently, Augustus limited himself to defending the existing frontiers, where almost the entire army, numbering about 300,000, was stationed. His actions contributed significantly to the "Roman Peace". During the time of Augustus, many important innovations took place, a census was carried out throughout the empire to determine the number of
Roman citizens. In addition, many provinces had all residents registered, as in Syria (this is the "estimation" mentioned in the bible). Roads and traffic routes were expanded, the economy and culture flourished. Roman culture reached the provinces, the number of which increased.

Despite all measures to preserve ancient Roman institutions, further development from the city center of Rome to the state as a whole continued during the reign of Augustus. One indication of this is that Augustus spent three years in Gaul without any attachment to Rome as ruler. His successor Tiberius spent most of his reign in Capri. Thus the institution of the Principles was so secure that the rulers did not have to directly control the municipal institutions, especially the senate.

The adopted son of Augustus and his successor Tiberius, who was considered a complex man and a truly republican, limited himself during his reign mainly to measures to ensure the protection of the borders.

His successor Caligula has traditionally been considered the first example of a "caesarean section". Today, this emperor, who reigned for only a full three years, is very different from other rulers, which does not mean a positive assessment of his reign. Under the rule of Claudius, after the assassination of Caligula (the emperorship was not formally hereditary), Britain was annexed to the Empire, and then later Thrace, which had previously been an area dependent on Rome.

The bad reputation of Nero, the successor of Claudius, goes back, in particular, to subsequent, especially Christian judgments, when he initiated the first major persecution of Christians. However, Nero is also represented in pagan sources, in which the pro-Western stance was presented as negative. Likewise, he is deeply valued in modern studies accusing him of neglecting the military. The death of Nero occurred in AD 68, and the rule of the houses of Julius and Claudius, two of the most important Roman families, came to an end. The end of the houses of Julius and Claudius marks a turning point in Roman history: henceforth, another emperor was to come from the ancient Roman nobility.

High imperial period

After the turmoil of four Imperial years, the prosperous Flavians rose to power, while Emperor Vespasian crushed a rebellion by his son Titus in Judea in the 70s. Vespasian restored the state treasury and secured the border to the east from the Parthians. When Vespasian, who managed a fairly successful reign, died in 79, Titus succeeded him on the throne, but reigned only for a very short time, during which several catastrophes occurred (the eruption of Vesuvius and an epidemic of diseases). Then his brother Domitian came to the throne in 81. His reign was tinged with gloominess in historical sources such as Tacitus and Suetonius because his relationship with the Senate was broken, but this reign was certainly successful in reorganizing the administration into a more efficient one.

The subsequent period of the reign of emperors, which began with Nerva, is usually understood as the heyday of the Empire, both in culture and in terms of the power position of Rome. Emperors usually took into account the conclusions of the senate and generally adhered to the constitution of the Principate. The Roman Empire reached its greatest development under the rule of Nerva's successor, Trajan, in 117, when Trajan, who was the first emperor not from Italy, but from the provinces (from Spain), was recognized and noted as "the best emperor." The empire during the reign of Trajan was engulfed in the Dacian Wars and campaigns against the Parthians from Scotland to Nubia, in a north-south direction, and from Portugal to Mesopotamia in a west-east orientation; however, conquests east of the Euphrates were halted. Under the educated and supportive Hellenes Adrian, the internal consolidation of the empire and a civilizational, cultural and technical flourishing took place, which favored the spread of the then very young, but already strongly grown Christianity.

Hadrian's main emphasis was on building effective frontier fortifications (such as Hadrian's Walls in Britain, or the fortification and demolition of the eastern frontier). However, some modern historians accuse the emperor of not noticing seriously impending financial problems. In fact, these were the harbingers of an economic crisis, which, however, did not acquire any dramatic proportions.

By the middle of the second century, with the beginning of the dynasty and throughout the reign of Antony Pius, the empire reached its apogee, but under the reign of the "Philosophical Emperor" (161-180) the first problems arose. There were fierce battles with various Germanic tribes, especially with the Marcomanni - hostilities were resumed several times - while the Parthians attacked in the east. In addition, in 166, the victorious return of the Eastern Roman troops brought a plague into the Empire, the so-called "Plague of Antony". In addition to the serious external threat, which demanded the resources of the empire beyond the limits of what was possible, the first signs of decay were already visible inside.

After the death of Marcus Aurelius, who was able to achieve temporary success in the region of the northern border, but was unable to carry out internal reforms, a number of further crisis events occurred, especially since his son Commodus, apparently, was unable to ensure the security of the state. When he was killed, a civil war broke out. At the beginning of the 3rd century, the northerners were able to stabilize the situation. Septimius Severus, who reigned at Kampf in 193, was also the first emperor from Africa. He was successful in the war against the Parthians (creating the Roman province of Mesopotamia), at the same time the army increased.

During the reign of Caracalla, all free inhabitants of the empire, with the exception of military subordinates who stood in special legal relations with Rome, received Roman citizenship, which was a turning point in the formation of the Roman state. Caracalla, who was popular among the people and the army, but not in the Senate, fell victim to an assassination attempt in his Parthian campaign. After a short period, Heliogabal ascended the throne, and his reign was marked by his elevation to the cult of the deity of the same name, the ruler-God.

In 222, after the infamous Heliogabalus was killed, Severus Alexander tried in vain to prove himself in a war against the Sassanids in the East and against the Germans on the Rhine. In 235 he was killed by disgruntled soldiers

After the rather inglorious end of the North, there followed the crisis of the state of the third century, in which the soldiers of the Emperor were attacked by the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube (especially the Alemanni and Goths).

The decisive battle took place on the eastern frontier with the new Sassanid Persian Empire (224), which eliminated Parthian rule. The Sassanids proved to be a more formidable opponent of Rome than the Parthians had ever been: the Sassanid king, Shapur I, invaded Syria several times, defeating several Roman armies. Even the emperor Valerian surrendered to him, and spent the rest of his life in captivity with an incomparable distaste for Rome. While Rome was desperately trying to hold on to the provinces of Syria and Asia Minor in the east, the empire was crumbling in the west. Governors in the provinces who commanded several legions often used them to gain power. Again and again there were battles between the usurpers, which even led to the destruction of individual provinces of Gaul.

Other powers tried to exploit Rome's weakness to conquer it. For example, Palmyra, a former ally of Rome against the Parthians and later the Sassanids, was conquered in 272, after temporarily conquering parts of Rome's eastern provinces under Zenobia. The crisis led to many changes, but did not affect all areas of the empire to the same extent. And, finally, it was necessary once again to achieve in order to prevent the threatening fall of the empire.

Early Late Antiquity

With Diocletian, the transition to Late Antiquity occurred in 284, marked by stronger centralization and bureaucracy than in the previous period, and by a later victory for Christianity. This time it was a time of change and transformation in the ancient Mediterranean world, and not, as has been pointed out in earlier studies (for example, by Edward Gibbon or Zeek), a time of fading.

Diocletian reformed the administration, which was divided into civil and military sectors, and created an ordered "Tetrarchy", according to which two rulers are designated: "senior emperor" (Most Highest) and "junior emperor" ("Caesar"). Because for just one emperor, the empire had long ago become too big to rule, as the pressure on the borders steadily increased. The division of provinces and the introduction of dioceses and prefectures should improve the efficiency of provincial administration.

With the maximum price regulation, Diocletian tried to contain inflation and economic recession. The religious consolidation of imperial power, the so-called "Apotheosis", was supposed to once again draw the attention of the inhabitants of the Empire towards the state and the emperor. Especially Christians considered illegal in the state. The last (and most brutal) persecution of Christians took place during his reign.

The idea of ​​dividing the empire was not entirely new, but now it has been implemented more consistently. Rome remained the ideological center of the empire, although the emperors moved their residences around the borders, such as August-Treverorum (from which today Trier emerged).

Constantine the Great, whose father Constantine I assumed the title of "Supreme Augustus" after the resignation of Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian in the west, was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in 306, and the now highest-ranking emperor Galerius, albeit reluctantly, recognized him as co-emperor. Konstantin was not happy about this. He gradually destroyed his rivals and thereby ensured the dissolution of the Roman tetrarchy. Already from 312 he ruled in the West and established the sole rule of the entire empire.

Already from 312 he dominated the west and in 324 he established his complete autocracy in the empire. The significant time of his reign was, first of all, for 2 reasons: on the one hand, because of the privileges of the Christians, with which the Constantinian turn began, and on the other hand, because of the founding of Costantinople, which henceforth served as the new capital. The gaze of the empire turned more and more to the east.

The dynasty of Constantine did not rule long. A fratricidal struggle followed, until Constantius II became ruler in 353. After his death, his successor Julian (the Apostate), Constantine's nephew, ascended the throne and ruled until the "revival" of paganism, which did not last long, however, since the Emperor died in 363 during the failed Persian campaign, with his death the dynasty of Constantine ended.

Under Valentinian I, the empire was temporarily divided into administrative districts, and after the death of the emperor, the throne passed to Theodosius I.

After the devastating defeat at Adrianople, he managed to keep the previous agreements for some time.

In 394, Theodosius became sole ruler after a series of usurpations and revolts in the west; he was the last emperor to rule over the entire empire. At one time, Christianity was also introduced as the state religion. After his death in 395, with his sons Honorius (in the west) and Arcadius (in the east), the empire was finally split. Nevertheless, the idea of ​​the unity of the empire remained relevant - so that the laws of one emperor were usually also in the sphere of power of another.

Abolition of empire in the West and establishment in the East

The Eastern Roman Empire experienced the turmoil of migration, it was an economically healthier and more populous imperial part. During the fifth century, the Roman Empire gradually disintegrated in the west. The advance of the Huns caused a domino effect that completely changed the political division of Europe.

After the Battle of Adrianople, the empire gradually lost control of its western provinces. Large parts of Gaul and Spain were lost to the invading Germans (Vandals, Franks, Goths) until the middle of the fifth century. First of all, the loss of Africa to the Vandals in 435 was a heavy blow to the Western Roman Empire. The government was transferred from Milan to Ravenna at the turn of the century. And even Italy fell more and more under the influence of the Teutons.

In 410, the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome, followed by the Vandals in 455. (The term "vandalism" based on this conquest originated in the eighteenth century and is not historically valid, as it is more a matter of "systematic plunder" than "senseless destruction"). The population of Rome was largely exterminated.

There were several reasons for the decline and decline of the Roman Empire. The processes that eventually led to the transformation of the Western Roman Empire into a series of Germanic states that have been considered sovereign since the 7th century have long been a subject of study. For the most part, the army no longer consisted of Roman citizens, but of "barbarian" mercenaries. The strength of the army was also not enough to ensure the safety of the borders. The internal administration was outdated, and there was also an economic downturn, though not as dramatic as earlier studies had suggested. In 476, the Germanic Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus and became emperor of the Western Roman Empire (the last recognized Western emperor, however, was Julius Nepos). Odoacer still considered himself "a German in the Roman service". His successor Theodoric the Great sought imperial recognition of his power.

In the East the situation was different. The eastern part of the empire was more economically successful, had larger strategic reserves, and more skillful diplomacy. First of all, the highlands of Anatolia with the Taurus Mountains and Propontis created natural barriers against the advance of foreign tribes. In addition, the Huns and Teutons never managed to cross the Hellespont; therefore the wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt remained largely untouched. The "barbarian" mercenaries in the army, which contributed to the fall of Western Rome, were driven back in the fifth century and early in the sixth. Despite heavy fighting with the Huns and Sassanids, the East remained untouched.

Under the rule of Justinian I, the last emperor whose mother tongue was Latin, and his general Belisarius, they were able to retake most of the West (North Africa, Italy, southern Spain), and in the East they were able to hold the frontiers against the Persians. However, the attacks of the Sassanids, since the accession to the throne of Khosrau I, became more and more cruel, their goal was to conquer the entire Roman east. This ended the coexistence of two great empires and a series of destructive wars. The Eastern Roman Emperor was again the most powerful ruler in the Mediterranean, while the Western Emperor dominated most of the old imperial territory (with the exception of Britain, Gaul, and northern Spain).

However, after the death of Justinian (565), the newly conquered territories were often unstable. For example, southern Spain fell a few years later under the Visigoths and Italy, and from 568 under the Lombards.

End of an ancient empire

Within the Eastern Roman Empire, religious disputes between Christian groups (Monophysites vs. Orthodox) and the heavy tax burden of constant warfare contributed to the dissatisfaction of segments of the population such as Syria and Egypt; this led to a significant weakening of the sense of loyalty. At the beginning of the 7th century, at first large parts of the empire were temporarily conquered by the Sassanids. Persian troops under the command of Khosrau II twice reached Byzantium and stole the Holy Cross, which Helen, the mother of Constantine, allegedly found, and that the "Greatest Treasure" of the empire was brought from Jerusalem.

After the Emperor Heraclius ended the long war victoriously and with great difficulty, the exhausted empire was hardly able to withstand the attack of the Islamic Arabs (Arab expansion) and lost Syria and Africa. In particular, the loss of rich Egypt, which was betrayed by the patriarch Cyrus and given to the Arabs, significantly weakened the Eastern Empire. Heraclius broke with the Roman tradition, replaced the title "Emperor" with the ancient Greek royal title "Basileus", and the Greek language also became official. Now the kingdom has lost its Roman-antique character. The Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital Constantinople, was preserved under state law until the 15th century, but the internal structures changed so much around 640 that it seems justified from then on to speak of the Byzantine Empire from that time. The Middle Ages also began in the East.

Territorial changes of the Byzantine Empire

However, it should be noted that the term "Byzantine" is a term that appeared in the 19th century and has no historical accuracy. The Catholic West in the Middle Ages preferred the term "Kingdom of the Greeks" because the people wanted to preserve the heritage of the Roman Empire, not yielding to the apostate Orthodox Christians of the East, claiming this for themselves (example: "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" as a name for the medieval "German Reich") .

On the other hand, if the term "Byzantine" itself spoke of the Greeks, then the pre-Christian Greeks of antiquity were always meant, and some even called themselves today as "Romon", that is, "Romans". As in the case of the Byzantines themselves, the name "Roman Empire" ("Rum") was always common among the inhabitants of the medieval Muslim empires, when referring to Byzantium. As an idea and reference point, the term Roman Empire was in effect for a long time after the period of antiquity.

Historical association

The Frankish king Charlemagne was the first post-Roman emperor of Western Europe, who, according to the translation, saw himself as the heir of the Roman emperors. His imperial coronation on December 25, 800 in Rome also led to diplomatic conflicts with the Byzantine Basileus, who considered himself the only legitimate Roman emperor.

Holy Roman Empire (from the 15th century with the addition of the "German Nation") in its territorial location - today's political borders - Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, northern and central Italy, Parts of France (Lorraine, Alsace , Burgundy, Provence) and parts of Poland (Silesia, Pomerania), saw the Western Roman Empire as its successor, and the Russian tsar at that time demanded the Byzantine heritage ("Third Rome"). The titles "Emperor" and "King" were taken from the Roman title "Caesar".

With the imperial coronation of Napoleon I, for the first time, there were several emperors in Western Europe. After the addition of the Roman-German imperial crown to himself by Francis II, the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist in 1806 in Western Europe.

Of course, the imperial title of various monarchs continued to be used, until in 1917 () and in 1918-1919. with the resignation of Charles I (Austria-Hungary) and Wilhelm II (German Empire), the history of emperors in Europe was over.

In the twentieth century, Fascist Italy reasserted the succession of the Roman Empire: "The restoration of the Roman Empire" was Mussolini's declared goal.

The Roman Empire is the most extensive political and social structure of Western civilization. In 285 AD the empire became too large to be governed from a government in Rome, and so the emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD) divided Rome into a western and eastern empire.

The Roman Empire was formed when Augustus Caesar (27 BC-14 AD) became the first emperor of Rome and ceased to exist when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the German king Odoacer (476 AD). .e.).

In the east, the Roman Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization was profound and has a significant impact on all aspects of Western culture.

After the battle of Atium in 31 BC. e. Gaius Octavian Turin, nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, became the first emperor of Rome and received the name Augustus Caesar. Although Julius Caesar is often considered the first emperor of Rome, this is not true, he never held the title of "Emperor". Julius Caesar had the title "The Dictator" because Caesar held supreme military and political power. In doing so, the Senate willingly bestowed the title of emperor on Augustus because he had destroyed Rome's enemies and brought much-needed stability.

Julius-Claudian dynasty

Augustus ruled the empire from 31 BC until his death. As he himself said: "I found Rome a city of clay, and left it a city of marble." Augustus reformed the laws, initiated extensive building projects (mostly directed by his loyal general Agrippa, who built the first Pantheon), and secured the status of the greatest political and cultural empire in history.

The Roman Peace (Pax Romana), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he concluded lasted over 200 years and was a time of peace and prosperity.

After the death of Augustus, power was transferred to his heir Tiberius, who continued the policy of the past emperor, but did not have sufficient strength of character and wisdom. The same character traits will apply to the following emperors: Caligula, Claudius and Nero. These first five rulers of the empire were called the Julio-Claudian dynasty (the name of the dynasty comes from the combination of the two surnames Julius and Claudius).

Although Caligula became infamous for his depravity and insanity, his early reign was quite successful. Caligula's successor, Claudius, was able to expand Rome's power and territory in Britain. Caligula and Claudius were soon killed (Caligula by his Praetorian Guard, and Claudius, apparently by his wife). Nero's suicide ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and ushered in a period of social unrest known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

"Four Emperors"

These four rulers were Galba, Otto, Vitellius and Vespasian. After the suicide of Nero in 68 AD. Galba took over the reign (69 AD) and almost instantly found himself unsuitable as a ruler due to his irresponsibility. He was killed by the Praetorian Guard.

Otto quickly succeeded Galb on the very day of his death, and according to ancient records, he should have been a good emperor. However, General Vitellius initiated a civil war that ended in Otto's suicide and Vitellius' ascension to the throne.

Ruler Vitellius was no better than Galba, he took advantage of his position, led a luxurious life and had fun. In this regard, the legions nominated General Vespasian as emperor and went to Rome. Vitellius was killed by Vespasian's men. Vespasian took power exactly one year after Galba ascended the throne.

Flavian dynasty

Vespasian founded the Flavian dynasty. This dynasty was characterized by large-scale construction projects, economic prosperity and the territorial expansion of the empire's borders. Vespasian ruled from 69 to 79 AD, during this period of time he initiated the construction of the Flavian amphitheater (the famous Roman Colosseum). The construction of the Colosseum was already completed by the son Titus (ruled in the period 79-81 AD).

At the very beginning of the reign of Titus, the volcano Vesuvius erupted (79 AD), which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash and lava. Ancient sources are unanimous in their opinion that Titus showed excellent will and leadership in dealing with this catastrophe, as well as with the great fire of Rome in 80 AD. But unfortunately Titus died of a fever in 81 AD. and was succeeded by his brother Domitian, who ruled from 81-96 CE.

Domitian expanded and fortified the frontiers of Rome, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire, continued the building projects begun by his brother, and improved the empire's economy. However, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the Roman Senate and he was assassinated in 96 CE.

Five Good Emperors of Rome

Domitian's successor was his adviser Nerva, who founded the Nervan-Antonin dynasty. This dynasty ruled Rome in the period 96-192 AD. This time was marked by an increase in wealth, and became known as the "Five Good Emperors of Rome". Between 96 and 180 AD. e. five like-minded emperors skillfully ruled Rome and were able to take the empire to a new level. The names of the five emperors, in order of their reign: Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

Under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew stronger, more stable, and expanded in size and scope. Also worth mentioning are Lucius Verus and Commodus, the last rulers of the Nervan-Antonin dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until he died in 169 AD. but he, according to historians, was an ineffective manager. Commodus, the son and successor of Aurelius, became one of the most infamous emperors who ever ruled Rome. He was strangled to death by his wrestling partner in a bathtub in 192 CE. Thus ended the Nervan-Antonin dynasty and the prefect Pertinax came to power (who, most likely, was the initiator of the assassination of Commodus).

Severan Dynasty, Year of the Five Emperors

Pertinax only ruled for three months before he was assassinated. It was followed by four more emperors, this period is known as the "Year of the Five Emperors". The completion of which was the coming to power of Septimus Severus.

Severus ruled Rome from 193-211 AD, founded the Severan dynasty, defeated the Parthians and expanded the empire. His campaigns in Africa and Britain were large and costly, which contributed in part to Rome's future financial problems. Severus was replaced by his sons Caracalla and Geta, subsequently Caracalla killed his brother.

Caracalla ruled until 217 AD, he was killed by his bodyguard. It was during the reign of Caracalla that almost all the people of the empire received citizenship. It was believed that the purpose of granting citizenship to all residents was an attempt to increase tax revenues, there were more people who were taxed by the central government.

The Dynasty of the North was continued by Julia Maesa (Empress) who ruled until the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 AD, which in turn plunged the empire into chaos, a period known as the Crisis of the Third Age (continued from 235-284).

The collapse of the Roman Empire into eastern and western

This period is also known as the Imperial Crisis. It was characterized by constant civil war as various warlords fought for control of the empire. The crisis further contributed to widespread social unrest, economic instability (in particular during this period there was a devaluation of the Roman currency) and, finally, the dissolution of the empire, which was divided into three separate regions.

The empire was reunited under the rule of Aurelian (270-275 AD), subsequently his policy was developed and improved by Diocletian, who founded the Tetrarchy (four power) to maintain order throughout the empire.

Despite this, the empire was so vast that Diocletian had to split it in half in 285 CE to promote more efficient administration. He created the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire).

Since the main cause of the Imperial Crisis was the lack of clarity in the policies of the empire, Diocletian decreed that successors should be chosen and approved by the emperor in advance.

His two successors were Generals Maxentius and Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily stepped down from power in 305 AD, and the tetrarchy became rival regions of the empire for dominance. After the death of Diocletian in 311 AD. Maxentius and Constantine plunged the empire into civil war again.

Constantine and Christianity

In 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of Milvus Bridge and became the sole emperor of the Western and Eastern empires (reigned in the period 306-337 AD).

Believing that Jesus Christ was helping to win the victory, Constantine passed a number of laws, such as the Milanese (317 AD), which provided for religious tolerance and tolerance for faith, in particular Christianity.

Constantine demanded a special relationship with God, Jesus Christ. At the First Council of Nicaea (325 CE), Constantine insisted on accepting the divinity of Jesus and collecting all Christian manuscripts to form the book known today as the Bible.

Constantine stabilized the empire and currency, reformed the army, and founded a city on the site of a former Byzantine city called "New Rome", which would become known as Constantinople (now Istanbul).

Constantine became known as Constantine the Great because of his religious, cultural achievements and political reforms, massive building projects, and talent as a military commander in chief. After his death, the sons inherited the empire and, rather quickly, came into conflict with each other, which threatened to destroy everything that Constantine had done.

His three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans divided the Roman Empire among themselves, but soon came to the struggle for power. During these conflicts, Constantine II and Constans were killed. Constantius II died later, naming his cousin Julian as his successor and heir. Emperor Julian reigned for only two years (AD 361-363) and tried to restore Rome to its former glory through a series of reforms aimed at improving governance.

As a Neoplatonic philosopher, Julian rejected Christianity and blamed Constantine's faith and adherence to Christianity as the reason for the decline of the empire. Having officially proclaimed a policy of religious tolerance, Julian systematically removed Christians from influential government positions, forbade teaching, the spread of religion and military service for Christian believers. His death, during a military campaign against the Persians, ended the dynasty of Constantine. Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome and became known as "Julian the Apostate" for his opposition to Christianity.

This was followed by the brief reign of Jovian, who proclaimed Christianity as the dominant faith of the empire and repealed various decrees of Julian, after which he transferred the throne to Theodosius I. Theodosius I (379-395 AD) restored Constantine's religious reforms. Pagan worship was banned throughout the empire, pagan temples were converted into Christian churches.

It was at this time that the famous Plato's Academy was closed by the decree of Theodosius. Many of the reforms were not popular with both the Roman aristocracy and the common people who adhered to the traditional values ​​of pagan practice.

The unity of social duties and religious beliefs that paganism provided was destroyed by the institution of religion, which removed the gods from the earth and human society and proclaimed only one God who ruled from heaven.

Fall of the Roman Empire

In the period 376-382 AD. Rome fought off the invasion of the Goths, this period is known as the Gothic Wars. In the Battle of Adrianople, on August 9, 378 AD, the Roman emperor Valens was defeated, historians have accepted this event as a key event contributing to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.

Various theories have been put forward as to the reasons for the fall of the empire, but even today there is no consensus as to what these factors were. Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, famously argued that Christianity played a key role in the new religion undermining the public mores of the empire, which had been shaped by paganism.

The theory that Christianity was the root cause of the fall of the empire was discussed long before Gibbon, however, there was another opinion that paganism and pagan practices led to the fall of Rome in the first place.

Other factors are also recalled, ranging from the corruption of the ruling elite to the immensity of the empire, as well as the growing strength of the Germanic tribes and their constant attacks on Rome. The Roman military was no longer able to effectively defend the borders, just as once the government could not fully collect taxes in the provinces. Also, the arrival of the Visigoths to the empire in the third century AD. and their rebellions have been cited as a contributing factor to the decline.

The Western Roman Empire officially ended on September 4, 476 AD, when Emperor Romulus Augustus was overthrown by the German king Odoacus. The Eastern Roman Empire transformed into the Byzantine Empire and lasted until 1453 AD.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The inventions and innovations that were created by the Roman Empire profoundly changed the lives of ancient people and continue to exist in the culture of the whole world. The skills of building roads and buildings, indoor plumbing, aqueducts, and even quick-drying cement were invented or perfected by the Romans. The calendar used in the West comes from the one created by Julius Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in Romance languages) and the months of the year also come from Rome.

Housing complexes (known as "insula"), public toilets, locks and keys, newspapers, even socks, were developed by the Romans, as were shoes, the postal system (improved and adopted from the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying glass, and the genre of satire in literature.

During the existence of the empire, significant discoveries were made in the field of medicine, law, religion, government and warfare, the Romans were able to borrow and improve those inventions or concepts that they found in the population of the regions they conquered. It's safe to say that the Roman Empire left an indelible legacy that continues to influence the way people live even today.

Bodunov Andrey, Rogov Ilya

This project summarizes information about the cultural heritage of Ancient Rome. Matelial can be used in the lessons of art, history.

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Introduction 3

Hypothesis 4

Justification of hypothesis 5

Culture of Ancient Rome

Architecture

Sculpture

Painting 6

Wall painting 7

Literature

Religion 8

Science and Philosophy 9

Proof of Conjecture 10

Legacy of Ancient Rome

Latin language

Architecture 11

Architectural monuments

Coliseum

Roman Forum 12

Pantheon

Cultural values ​​of Ancient Rome 13

Conclusion 15

Conclusion 16

Sources of information 17

Introduction

My classmate Ilya Rogov and I decided to find out what kind of cultural heritage the great power of antiquity Ancient Rome left behind.

Ancient Rome - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Rome), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Persia in the east to Portugal in the west. Ancient Rome gave the modern world Roman law, some architectural forms and solutions (for example, an arch and a dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity, as a religion, was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. The official language of the ancient Roman state was Latin.

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created and being created by mankind and constituting its spiritual and social existence.

Hypothesis

The culture of Ancient Rome left behind a great cultural heritage.

Chapter 1. Culture of Ancient Rome. Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Literature. Religion

Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The first major buildings in Rome were made according to the Etruscan example, perhaps even by Etruscan craftsmen; therefore, Roman architecture adopted the most important form of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch. The use of this architectural form and the box vault, cross vault and dome derived from it, unknown to the Greeks, gave the Romans the opportunity to give great variety to their structures.

However, in general, Roman architecture was strongly influenced by Greek architecture. In their constructions, the Romans sought to emphasize the strength, power, greatness that suppressed a person. The structures are characterized by monumentality, magnificent decoration of buildings, a lot of decorations, and the desire for strict symmetry.

Among the most valuable architectural monuments of Ancient Rome are bridges, aqueducts and baths.

The Etruscans and Hellenes left to the Romans their rich heritage, on the basis of which Roman architecture grew.

According to legend, the first sculptures in Rome appeared under Tarquinius Proud, who decorated the roof of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol built by him with clay statues according to the Etruscan custom. From the 4th century BC e. they begin to erect statues of Roman magistrates and even private individuals. The most important thing in the statue seemed to be a portrait resemblance to the original. Bronze statues, as a rule, were cast in the early era by Etruscan masters, and starting from the 2nd century. BC e. - Greek sculptors.

From the end of the 3rd century BC e. Greek sculpture begins to exert a powerful influence on Roman sculpture. When plundering Greek cities, the Romans captured a large number of sculptures. An abundant influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying retarded the flourishing of their own Roman sculpture. Only in the field of realistic portraiture did the Romans, using Etruscan traditions, introduce new artistic ideas and create some excellent masterpieces.

The dominant idea that permeated the Roman sculpture of the 1st-2nd centuries was the central idea of ​​official culture - the idea of ​​the greatness of Rome, the power of imperial power. This idea was embodied in various sculptural forms, primarily in the form of relief compositions on the walls of various buildings depicting scenes of military campaigns of emperors, popular myths, where gods and heroes, patrons of Rome or the reigning dynasty acted.

An official direction is formed in the round sculpture - portraits of the reigning emperor, members of his family, persons close to him, his ancestors, patronizing gods and heroes.

Painting, like sculpture, came to Italy from Greece. The Romans were endowed with the ability for it, having received their first acquaintance with it from the Etruscans. Even in the days of the republic, Fabius Pictor was famous, who painted in 300 BC. e. Temple of Security. A hundred years later, the poet Pacuvius, who took up brushes in his moments of leisure, was respected for his paintings. Under Augustus, Rome already had several more or less skillful painters, headed by the famous Ludius. But they were mostly decorators; painting, on the other hand, was left in the hands of the Greeks.

The excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum, the clearing of the remains of the baths of Titus, the finds in many burial vaults near Rome, and recent studies of the ruins on the Palatine Hill have brought us many examples of Roman painting, although they belong to the category of purely decorative mural painting, but are extremely curious, since they there are images of individual human figures, entire scenes, landscapes, inanimate objects, and these images make it possible to judge the drawing, composition, color and technique of contemporary painting in general.

Usually the wall was painted in some one, even color, most often in dark red or in not very bright yellow, less often in black, blue, green and purple; at the bottom of it there was a panel of a darker color, repeated at the top, under the ceiling, in the form of a frieze. The area of ​​the wall was framed by thin, darker or lighter than it stripes, which, moreover, divided it into panels. In the middle of these panels, either single figures were depicted, as if flying in the air, or real pictures were drawn, the content of which was borrowed mostly from mythology and heroic legends. At the same time, artists almost always reproduced the famous works of Greek painters or freely imitated their compositions. As for the techniques for performing this painting, they were the same as those of the Greeks: the artist worked with water-based paints on wet plaster, or on dry plaster.

Roman literature began its formation in the third century BC. At this time, the Roman chronicles were created.

The first monuments of Roman prose were laws, treaties and liturgical books. In 240 BC e. The Romans were introduced to tragedy and comedy. Elogia appeared in honor of representatives of noble families. The beginnings of Roman folk drama appeared during various rural festivals. Atellani became the main type of dramatic works.

The last century of the Republic was marked by the flourishing of prose and poetry. The ability to compose poetry was a sign of good taste. A prominent place in the prose literature of the end of the Republic was occupied by Caesar with his memoirs.

The era of Augustus, called the "golden age of Roman literature", was a further development of poetry. The mugs of Maecenas and Messala Corwin appeared.

Under Nero, Lucan's poem "Pharsalia" and "Satyricon" by Petronius the Arbiter became famous - one of the works of artistic Latin prose. Marcus Valerius Martial and Decimus Junius Juvenal also made major contributions to Roman satire. The last major writer of the heyday of the empire was Apuleius - his semi-satirical work "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass" has been preserved. At the same time, specialized prose flourished. The biographical genre also developed. Phaedrus introduced the fable genre into ancient Roman literature. In the III century. early Christian literature appeared, strengthening its position in the next century.

As in the ancient Greek religion, the Roman religion did not have a single church and dogma, but consisted of cults of various deities. Religious rites related to family life or household and private affairs were performed by the father of the family himself. In the village, he could be replaced by a manor manager with special powers. Official state ceremonies were performed indirectly by some bearers of supreme power - first by the king through the so-called priestly kings, then by consuls and praetors, at critical moments - by the dictator. At the same time, the emperor, who combined the function of the Great Pontiff, usually did not express his initiatives.

Science and philosophy

The Romans are known for their philosophy. What are the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the works of these scientists, the first philosophical problems arose, many of which have not been resolved to this day.

In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved special success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livy; in literature - Livy Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valery Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Nason, Plutarch. It is also necessary to recall the Roman law, which is used by all of Europe.

Chapter 2

The language of the Latino-Faliscan branch of the Italic languages ​​of the Indo-European language family. To date, it is the only actively used Italian language (considered a dead language).

Today, Latin is the official language of the Holy See, the Order of Malta and the Vatican City State, as well as, to some extent, the Roman Catholic Church. Latin is the basis of the writing of many modern languages. The Latin language in its folk variety was the basis language for new national languages, united under the general name of Romance. These include the Italian language, which was created on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula as a result of a historical change in the Latin language, French and Provencal languages ​​that developed in the former Gaul, Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese - on the Iberian Peninsula, Romansh - on the territory of the Roman colony of Rezia (in part of present-day Switzerland and in northeastern Italy), Romanian - in the territory of the Roman province of Dacia (present-day Romania), Moldavian and some others, of which Sardinian should be especially noted, as the closest to classical Latin of all modern Romance languages.

Despite the common origin of the Romance languages, there are now significant differences between them. This is due to the fact that the Latin language penetrated the conquered territories over a number of centuries.

Finally, the Latin language still serves as a source for the formation of scientific terminology.

Ancient Rome created great architecture: urban ensembles and fortress walls, aqueducts, water pipes and giant public baths, beautiful roads and grandiose amphitheatres.

In ancient Egypt and Greece, they did not know what "high-rise" houses were - this was an invention of the Romans. It became possible only thanks to one of the three great Roman discoveries in architecture - Roman concrete.

The practicality of the Romans led to the discovery of the second great invention. In Rome, as in Greece, aqueducts were built a long time ago. Clay pipes were laid at a slight slope from mountain springs, erecting high stone water walls. At some point, a bold idea came up - to make openings in the wall, less stone is required and less time is spent on laying. The main thing is that they decided to make the shape of the openings semicircular, which distributes the load and makes the structure durable. This is how the arched form of the structure was born - an integral part of all Roman architecture. Some of these structures have survived to this day in working condition.

The third discovery was a continuation of the second. If many stone arches are placed closely one after the other, you will get a corridor with a semicircular ceiling. This overlap is called vault. If this corridor is made in the form of a closed circle and the central column is removed, then the vault will not collapse, but will hold itself - you will get a dome.

The amphitheater, an architectural monument of Ancient Rome, is the most famous and one of the most grandiose structures of the ancient world that has survived to our time. It is located in Rome, in a hollow between the Esquiline, Palatine and Caelievsky hills.

The construction of the largest amphitheater in Rome and the entire ancient world was carried out for eight years, as a collective construction of the emperors of the Flavian dynasty: they began to build in 72 AD. under the emperor Vespasian, and in 80 the amphitheater was consecrated by the emperor Titus. The amphitheater is located in the place where there was a pond that belonged to the Golden House of Nero.

Square in the center of Ancient Rome, along with adjacent buildings. Initially, it housed a market, later it included a comitium (a place for public meetings), a curia (a place for meetings of the Senate) and also acquired political functions.

This square served as the center of social life, and thematic communication evolved from everyday communication of people, bearing all the signs of what we today call a forum.

"Temple of All Gods" in Rome, a monument of centric-domed architecture of the heyday of the architecture of Ancient Rome, built in 126 AD. e. under Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, built two centuries before by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. It is a great engineering achievement of antiquity. Located in Piazza della Rotonda

In terms of composition and design, the Pantheon is unique in ancient Roman architecture. It is distinguished by classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the majesty of the artistic image. It is possible that Apollodorus of Damascus participated in the construction of the temple.

The cultural values ​​of Ancient Rome have come a long way of formation, because they were influenced by the traditions and artistic values ​​of two outstanding cultures of the ancient world: the Greeks and the Etruscans.

The formation and development of Roman civilization and culture contributed to the emergence of a new type of city. Roman cities are an important cultural value, the equal of which simply does not exist. Ancient Roman cities tended to develop around a single urban center

The unique cultural values ​​of the life of Ancient Rome are circuses and amphitheatres, where gladiator fights were held, animals were pitted and public executions were held. The Romans eagerly attended these cruel spectacles.

Another important asset of ancient Roman culture was literature and painting. The best examples of ancient Roman prose are the works of Cicero. More than fifty speeches and writings of this magnificent orator and writer have survived to this day. Incredibly valuable examples of ancient Roman literature are the works of the great Roman poets Catullus and Lucretius. In general, ancient Roman literature includes hundreds of prominent names.

The unique value of Ancient Rome is, of course, its sculpture. Despite the fact that the Romans often copied the Greek traditions in the field of sculpture, they created original sculptural portraits that conveyed the inner world of a person.

Even now, one and a half thousand years after the fall of the Roman Empire, its culture displays a great influence on our lives. Not a few modern buildings were erected according to the ancient Roman canons. Our jurisprudence and political systems are from Roman times. The period of the Roman Empire showed that one power can control a huge territory. Roman citizenship nurtured in people a sense of community.

Roman culture largely continued Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In publishing this essay, I must first express my gratitude to two people to whom he owes a great deal. First of all, Laurent Theiss. An excellent historian himself, he offered me a topic and asked me to write this work. Not only did he take the initiative, but he constantly helped me in my work and enriched this small book by compiling a bibliography for it, carefully rereading, correcting and supplementing my text. Another person to whom this essay owes a lot is my secretary and friend Christina Bonfoy, not just a highly qualified technical specialist, but a real conversationalist during dictation. Combined with technical skills, she has a deep understanding that allows her to mark for me what needs to be reworked or improved.

In addition to these two exceptional assistants, I must thank my colleagues and friends who helped me, first of all by giving me the opportunity to refer to manuscript texts of works important for my subject, but not yet published. I will name three people to whom I am most indebted in this respect: Nicole Beriou, Jérôme Bachet and Julien Demade. Thanks also to Jean-Yves Grenier, to whom I presented my idea and who made me useful comments.

In writing this essay, I realized the ideas in which I expressed interest in my first works. Thus, this book in some way sums up my reflections in an area that I consider fundamentally important for understanding the Middle Ages, since in it the views and practices of men and women of that era were very different from ours. I again met another Middle Ages here.

INTRODUCTION

The money that will be discussed was not called in the Middle Ages by a single word - neither in Latin, nor in local dialects. Money, in the sense that we attach to this word today and which gave the title to this essay, is a product of modern times. This already shows that money was not the main character in the medieval era - neither from an economic, nor from a political, nor from a psychological and ethical point of view. The words in medieval French that are closest to the modern concept of money are "monnaie", "denier", "pecune". The realities of that time, to which the term “money” could be applied today, were not the main embodiments of wealth. If one Japanese medievalist could claim that a rich man was born in the Middle Ages, although this is not a fact, in any case, the wealth of this rich man should have consisted no less and even more of lands, people and power than of money in the form of coins. .

In relation to money, the Middle Ages in the long run of history represents a regressive stage. Money was then less important and less represented than in the Roman Empire, and especially compared to how important it would be in the 16th and even more so in the 18th century. Even if money was a reality with which medieval society was forced to reckon more and more and which began to acquire features characteristic of it in modern times, the people of the Middle Ages, including merchants, clerics and theologians, never had a clear and unified idea about the subject that we understand by this term today.

In this essay, we will focus on two topics. On the one hand, what was the fate of the coin or, rather, coins in the medieval economy, life and mentality; on the other hand, how Christianity viewed them in a society where religion dominated, how it taught a Christian to relate to money and how to handle it. On the first point, it seems to me that in the Middle Ages, the coin was constantly becoming an increasingly rare phenomenon, and, most importantly, very fragmented and diverse, and that this fragmentation was one of the reasons why it was difficult to achieve a sharp rise in the economy. As for the second, it is noticeable that the desire for money and the use of it, whether it was about individuals or about states, little by little found justification and legitimation, no matter what conditions for this justification were set by the institution that instructed and guided everyone - the Church .

It remains for me, with Albert Rigodière, to emphasize the problem of defining money in the sense in which it is generally understood today and in which it is considered in this essay: “If one wants to define it, it invariably slips away. Money, both reality and fiction, substance and function, end and means of conquest, refuge and exclusionary value, driving force and ultimate goal of relationships, cannot be included in a single whole, just as it cannot be reduced to any of these constituent parts. I will try to take into account this variety of meanings here and clarify for the reader what meaning is attached to the word "money" in one or another place in the essay.

The study of the role of money in the Middle Ages prompts to distinguish at least two large periods. First of all - the first Middle Ages, let's say, from Constantine to St. Francis of Assisi, that is, from about the 4th century. until the end of the 12th century, when money regressed, the coin more and more receded into the background, and then only its slow return was outlined. Then the social opposition prevailed. potencies And humiles i.e. strong and weak. Then, from the beginning of the XIII century. until the end of the 15th century, the main was a couple dives And pauper, rich and poor. Indeed, the renewal of the economy and the rise of cities, the strengthening of royal power and the preaching of the church, especially the mendicant orders, made it possible to strengthen the role of money, although, it seems to me, the threshold beyond which capitalism begins was never crossed, and at the same time the popularity of voluntary poverty and emphasized the poverty of Christ.

Now, I think it is important to note two aspects of the history of medieval coinage. First, along with real coins, in the Middle Ages there were counting coins, thanks to which medieval society, at least some of its circles, acquired a skill in the field of accounting that it did not achieve in practical economics. In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci, a Pisan, son of a customs officer of the Republic of Pisa, in Bougie, North Africa, wrote in Latin the "Book of the Abacus" (an ancient counting tablet that became in the 10th century a board with columns using Arabic numerals), in which, in particular, introduced such an important invention for accounting as zero. This progress, which continued throughout the Middle Ages in the West, led Fra Luca Pacioli to compose in 1494 the "Sum of Arithmetic," a veritable encyclopedia of arithmetic and mathematics intended for merchants. At the same time, in Nuremberg, in southern Germany, the work "Method of Calculation" appeared.

Further, since the use of money was invariably associated with the observance of religious and ethical rules, it is necessary to indicate the texts on which the church relied, teaching and, if necessary, correcting or condemning the users of money. All of them are contained in the Bible, but especially effective in the medieval West were taken more often from the Gospel than from the Old Testament, except for one phrase, very famous among both Jews and Christians. We are talking about verse 31:5 from the book "Ecclesiasticus" ("The Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach"), which says: "He who loves money will hardly escape sin." Later we will see how the Jews, against their will, to a greater or lesser extent ceased to reckon with this maxim, and how medieval Christianity, as it developed, nuanced, without abolishing, the fundamental pessimism about money that it inspired. Here are the New Testament texts that most influenced the attitude towards money:

1) Matthew 6:24: “No one can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one and love the other; or he will be zealous for one, and neglect the other. You cannot serve God and mammon” (in late Judaism, unrighteous wealth, primarily in coins, was called mammon).

2) Matthew 19:23-24: “Jesus said to His disciples: Truly I say to you, it is difficult for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven; And again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” The same texts are found in the Gospels of Mark (10:23-25) and Luke (18:24-25).

3) One text in Luke (12:13-22) condemns the accumulation of treasures, in particular, 12:15: "The life of a man does not depend on the abundance of his possessions." Further, in Luke (12:33), Jesus says to the rich: "Sell your possessions and give alms." Finally, Luke tells the story of the evil rich man and poor Lazarus (16:19-31), which was endlessly referenced in the Middle Ages. The first went to hell, while the second was taken to heaven.

One can guess what resonance these texts could have had in the Middle Ages. They express the essence of the economic and religious context in which money was used throughout the Middle Ages, even if new interpretations weakened the severity of these prescriptions: condemnation of greed as a mortal sin, praise of mercy (charity) and, finally, in the perspective of salvation, the most important for men and women of the Middle Ages, praising the poor and depicting poverty as an ideal embodied in Jesus.

Now I would like to supplement the history of money in the Middle Ages, which you will read, with evidence of iconography. Medieval images that feature money, often symbolically, are always pejorative and designed to make the viewer fear money. The first image is a particularly impressive episode from the story of Jesus: the image of Judas receiving thirty denarii, for which he sold the teacher to those who would crucify him. For example, in the famous manuscript "Garden of Delights" of the XII century. with numerous illustrations, one folio depicts Judas receiving money for his betrayal, with the following comment: “Judas is the worst of the merchants, personifying the usurers whom Jesus drove out of the temple, since they put their hope in wealth and want money to triumph, to reign , dominated, and this is a parody of the praises that glorify the kingdom of Christ on earth.

The main iconographic symbol of money in the Middle Ages is a purse around the neck of a rich man, pulling him to hell. This fatal purse filled with money is depicted on well-marked sculptures, on tympanums and capitals of churches. Obviously, it is also mentioned in the section “Hell” of the “Divine Comedy” by Dante:

And I went one more time over the cliff,

Border of the seventh circle, lonely,

To the crowd, sitting in silent grief.

A mournful current rushed from their eyes;

They are all the time then the fire is flying

Hands removed, then sand.

So dogs itch at noon burning,

Defending with paw or mouth

From fleas, horseflies and flies that have settled in a bunch.

I peered into their faces all around,

Into which the fire pierces the stings;

But their appearance seemed unfamiliar to me.

Each had a purse hanging on his chest,

Having a special sign and color,

And it seemed to delight their eyes.

So, on one I saw a pouch,

Where in the yellow field there was a blue drawing,

Like a lion rearing its spine.

And on the other of those tormented by the desert

The pouch was like blood, scarlet

And with a goose as white as milk.

One whose white purse was

A pig, fraught and blue,

He told me: “Why did you come here?

Go to yourself, since you wear living flesh,

And know that Vitaliano, my countryman,

He will come and sit down from me.

Among these Florentines I am a stranger,

All ears blew: "Where is our leader,

With three goats, is our hero abysmal?"

He stuck out his tongue and grimaced

Like a bull when he licks his lips.

And I, fearing that he is angry,

Who told me not to stay long,

Left the weary people.

HERITAGE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND CHRISTIANIZATION

The Roman Empire left as a legacy to Christianity the use of money as a limited but important means; their use from the 4th to the 7th centuries. increasingly reduced. According to the famous but controversial statement of the great Belgian historian Henri Pirenne (1862-1935), the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. and his conquest of North Africa, and then of Spain, put an end to Mediterranean trade and economic ties between West and East. Without sharing the extremes of the opposite thesis put forward by Maurice Lombard (died in 1964), according to which the Muslim conquest became an incentive for the revival of European trade, it must be admitted that trade relations between the West and the East were never interrupted - the Byzantine and especially the Islamic East paid in gold for raw materials (wood, iron, slaves), which were continuously supplied by the Christianized or barbarized West. In fact, only thanks to the great trade with the East in the West, some circulation of gold was preserved in the form of Byzantine (nomisma, called in the West "bezant") and Muslim (gold dinar and silver dirham) coins. Due to these coins, European rulers were somewhat enriched (emperors until the end of the existence of the Western Roman Empire, “barbarian” leaders who became Christian kings and large owners).

The decline of cities and great trade led to the fragmentation of the West, where power henceforth belonged primarily to the owners of large estates ( villas), as well as churches. But the wealth of these new "strong" was based primarily on the possession of land and people - the latter became serfs or limitedly dependent peasants. The duties of these peasants included primarily corvee, quitrent in kind with agricultural products, as well as a small cash quitrent, which was paid thanks to underdeveloped local markets. The Church, especially the monasteries, at the expense of the tithe, part of which was paid in cash, and the exploitation of its land holdings carried out the theasauration of most of its monetary income. Coins and the precious metal that they contained, gold and silver ingots, were turned into works of art, which, stored in the treasuries of churches and monasteries, constituted a coin supply. When the need arose, these items were melted down into coins. This practice, which, however, was resorted to not only by churches, but also by magnates and even kings, demonstrates that the people of the Middle Ages had relatively little need for a coin. Let us note in this connection: such a practice, as Mark Blok correctly caught, also shows that the West of the early Middle Ages did not appreciate the work of the goldsmith and the beauty of his products. Thus, the shortage of coins was one of the characteristic weaknesses of the early Middle Ages in the economic sphere - coins that embodied both wealth and power. Indeed, the same Mark Blok, in the remarkable Outline of the Monetary History of Europe, published in 1954, ten years after his death, emphasizes that monetary phenomena dominated economic life. They were both symptoms and results.

In the sphere of production and use of coins during this period, a very strong fragmentation is characteristic. We do not yet have a detailed study of all places and all zones of coinage, if such is possible.

The people of the early Middle Ages, among whom there were fewer and fewer who use money, that is, coins, first tried to preserve the Roman customs of using coins, and then reproduced them. The coins were minted with the image of the emperor, the gold solidus remained the main coin in trade, but as a result of the reduction in production, consumption and exchange, the triens, that is, a third of the gold solidus, soon became the most popular gold coin. This preservation, albeit in a reduced volume, of the use of the ancient Roman coin had several reasons. Barbarians, before entering the Roman world and the formation of Christian states, did not mint a coin, with the exception of the Gauls. For some time, the coin was one of the few means of maintaining unity, as it circulated throughout the territories of the former Roman Empire.

Ultimately, economic weakness did not create a need to mint new coins. Barbarian leaders, who gradually appropriated the powers of the Roman emperors, put an end to the 5th century. - for different peoples and new states, specific dates differ - the state monopoly, which was imperial. Among the Visigoths, Leovigild (573-586) was the first to dare to issue a triens with his title and image on the obverse; it was minted until the Arab conquest at the beginning of the 8th century. In Italy, Theodoric and his Ostrogothic successors preserved the Roman tradition, and the Lombards, abandoning the Constantinian model, began to mint a coin with the name of their king only from the time of Rotary (636-652), and then Liutprand (712-744) - in the form of a reduced gold solidus weight. In Britain, after the middle of the 5th century. They stopped minting coins, only at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. The Anglo-Saxons put into circulation in Kent gold coins modeled after the Romans. By the middle of the 7th century gold coins replaced silver coins - sceattas. From the end of the 7th century the kings of various petty British kingdoms tried to restore the royal monopoly in their favor, which was done more or less quickly and with more or less difficulty in Northumbria, in Mercia, in Wessex. It should be noted - as the name of these coins will have a long and bright future - the appearance in Mercia under King Offa (796-799) of a new type of coins, pennies.

In Gaul, the sons of Clovis at first placed their names on copper coins still minted in their states. Then one of them, Theodoric I, king of Austrasia from 511 to 534, issued a silver coin with his name. However, the real royal monopoly on the coin would be associated with the minting of gold coins. The first Frankish king who dared to do so, as Mark Block emphasized, was Theodoric's son, Theodobert I (534-548), but in Gaul the royal monopoly soon disappeared - as quickly as in other kingdoms, if not faster. From the end of the VI century. and at the beginning of the 7th century. the name of the king was no longer applied to the coins, but the name of the coiner (monétaire), the manufacturer of the allowed coin, and the number of coiners became more and more. These were palace officials, city goldsmiths, churches and bishops, owners of large estates. There were even vagabond coiners, and the number of coiners who had the right to mint triens in Gaul exceeded 1400. As in the Roman Empire, coins were minted from three metals: bronze or copper, silver, gold. The cartography and chronology of different metal coinage is poorly understood, and Mark Blok argued that their logic is difficult to understand. In the new states, except for England, where copper and bronze were actively circulated, gold was at first intensively used, and only then its volume was clearly reduced. In addition, gold, or rather the gold solidus, was widely used as counting coin, except among the Salian Franks. Finally, according to Mark Blok, one silver coin, actually minted back in the Roman Empire, was widely used as a counting coin during the early, so-called "barbarian" Middle Ages and also had a happy future. It was a denarius (denier).

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