Religion (from the Latin religio - conscientious attitude towards something) is no less complex and diverse phenomenon than philosophy, science or art. Its complexity and diversity are reflected in the polysemy of the term “religion.” Religion is often understood as “any view that contains a significant element of faith. In this case, the concept of religion includes many different phenomena spiritual world person. Therefore, for the rigor and certainty of reasoning, it is necessary to limit the scope of application of the concept of religion. This is easiest to do by taking the developed world religions as a starting point. These include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism. The named religious movements, due to the length of their history, the breadth of their distribution and other factors, are carefully developed systems. They contain all the elements that characterize religion as a phenomenon of spiritual culture and public life. The beginnings of religion that arose in primitive society, should be distinguished from the form of religion as it developed, starting from the “axial time.” Let us list the main elements that characterize the developed forms of religion:

• 1. Creed.
• 2. Religious organization (church).
• 3. Cult (system of rituals and sacraments). A creed is a doctrine that reveals the meaning and essence of a given religious movement. The central place in the doctrine is given to the doctrine of God - theology, or theology. Theology (theology) reveals the concept of God that is characteristic of a given confession - an association of people professing the same faith. Theology also explains the meaning of religious dogmas - provisions and ideas that are fundamental to a given creed. In most world religions, God is interpreted as a fundamentally supermundane being, i.e. a being that is qualitatively different from the things of the visible (sensually perceived) world. Therefore, the way of knowing God must be fundamentally different from the way a person knows the world around him. Explaining the ways of knowing God (knowing God) is one of the most important tasks of theology, or theology. A certain ethical system-set is closely related to religion moral ideals, principles and norms characteristic of a given religious direction.

Religious organization (church) is one of the most important elements religious life. It consists of a system of religious institutions, as well as people professionally engaged in organizing the practice of religious worship - clergy. A religious organization is also a certain management system. Church leaders (clergy) conduct religious educational work among ordinary believers - parishioners, or laity. The network of educational and theological educational institutions is designed to train professional cadres of church ministers. The presence of a church organization turns religion into a social institution that stands among others social institutions, such as science, law, cultural and educational institutions. The main function of the church is to create conditions for the practice of religious worship. The Church is seen as an obligatory mediator between God and man.

A cult is a system of rites (rituals) and sacraments characteristic of a given religious trend. Developed religions involve a complex system of rituals and sacraments. It is assumed that without them, full communication between God and man is impossible. Within the framework of Christianity, for example, the elements of cult include baptism, prayer, confession, repentance, communion, fasting, veneration of saints, observance religious holidays and significant dates church calendar etc. Through cult, religion addresses not only the mental but also the emotional side of a person. Most faiths are clearly aware of the difference between religious forms of knowledge and purely rational ones. The practice of religious worship is intended to influence the whole being of a person, and not just his mind.

Comparing philosophy and religion as social phenomena, we see, first of all, that for philosophy the presence of a cult side is not characteristic feature. Rituals and sacraments do not play a significant role either in science or in many other areas of human activity. At the same time, the fact that most forms of culture, including non-religious ones, contain individual elements of cult is generally recognized.

Culture as a holistic phenomenon presupposes the presence of certain procedures (rituals). They imprint patterns of behavior that are recognized by a given association of people as positive. Violations of accepted patterns are perceived as manifestations of a negative property. Based on the accepted samples, norms and rules or standards for a certain type of activity are developed. In this sense, even such a purely rational sphere of human activity as science is not without a cult side. However, neither in science nor in culture as a whole does the cult, of course, play such a significant role as it plays in religion. On this basis, comparing religion with philosophy is not difficult, since cult is not specific to philosophy. The situation is different if we compare the content side of religion and philosophy. In this case, it is necessary, first of all, to compare the two doctrines, i.e. philosophy and theology. So V.F. Shapovalov believes that several options can be identified for resolving the issue of the relationship between theology and philosophy.

The first option can be characterized by a brief formula: “philosophy is its own theology.” It is most clearly represented ancient philosophy. Ancient philosophers in most cases they build an independent religious and philosophical system, different from the folk religions of their day. These are rational systems that seek to substantiate the abstract concept of God. The element of faith in the philosophies of, for example, Plato and Aristotle plays a much smaller role compared to the beliefs of the Greeks. Ancient philosophers create a special theology, designed for the few, for the educated part of society, for those who are able and willing to think and reason. Here God is a very abstract concept. It is significantly different from anthropomorphic ones, i.e. humanoid gods of religious and mythological concepts: Zeus, Apollo, etc.

The second version of the relationship between philosophy and theology develops in the Middle Ages. It can be described as “philosophizing in faith.” Philosophy here exists “under the sign” of faith. It starts directly from the dogmas of theology. The truths of revelation are regarded as immutable. On their basis, philosophical knowledge develops, more comprehensive in nature and more abstract in comparison with theological knowledge. “Philosophizing in faith” endows the Christian God-Personality with abstract philosophical characteristics. He is a symbol of the infinite, eternal, one, true, good, beautiful, etc.

The third option is associated with the focus of philosophical knowledge on the discovery of such universal characteristics of being that do not depend on religious worldview. This philosophy is religiously neutral. It takes into account the fact of diversity religious denominations, but its theoretical provisions are constructed in such a way that they are acceptable to all people, without distinction of religion. She does not build her own God, but she does not reject the God of religions. She leaves the question of God entirely to the discretion of theology. This type is characteristic of a number of areas of Western European philosophy in the 18th century. and is still widespread today.

The fourth option is an open recognition of the irreconcilability of philosophy and religion. This is an atheistic philosophy. She fundamentally rejects religion, viewing it as a delusion of humanity.

IN modern philosophy All of the above options are presented. The question arises as to which of the above options is the most “correct”. Preference depends on the person himself. Each of us has the right to independently decide which option to prefer, which one most corresponds to the nature of our personal worldview. In order to outline approaches to solving this issue, it is necessary, in particular, to find out what faith is, not just religious faith, but faith in general. Understanding the phenomenon of faith is the task of philosophy.

Faith is a person’s unshakable conviction in something. This conviction is based on a special ability of the human soul. Faith as a special ability of the soul has independent significance. It is not directly dependent on either the mind or the will. You cannot force yourself to believe in anything; volitional effort does not form faith and is not capable of generating faith. In the same way, you cannot believe in anything by relying only on the arguments of reason. Faith requires outside reinforcements when the enthusiasm of faith dries up. The kind of faith that needs external reinforcement is a weakening faith. It is clear that it is undesirable for faith to contradict the arguments of reason. But this does not always happen. One must distinguish between blind and conscious faith. Blind faith occurs when a person believes in something, but is not aware of what exactly and why. Conscious faith is faith that is closely related to the understanding of the object of faith. Such faith presupposes knowledge of what should be believed and what should not be believed and is even dangerous for a person’s well-being and the preservation of his soul.

The cognitive value of faith is small. It would be frivolous to maintain an unshakable conviction in the absoluteness of certain scientific provisions, despite experimental data and logical arguments. Scientific research presupposes the ability to doubt, although it is not without faith. And yet, in knowing, we cannot rely on faith. Validity and logical persuasiveness are much more important here. But if the cognitive significance of faith is small, then its vital meaning. Without faith, the very process of human life is impossible. In fact, in order to live, we must believe that we are destined for some more or less significant mission on earth. To live we must believe in own strength. We trust our senses and believe that in most cases they provide us with correct information about the outside world. After all, we and our minds believe in the ability of our thinking to find more or less acceptable solutions to complex problems. However, in life there are many situations (the majority of them), the outcome of which we are not able to calculate in advance with absolute accuracy. In such situations, faith helps us out. Lack of faith leads to apathy and despondency, which can turn into despair. Lack of faith gives rise to skepticism and cynicism.

Philosophy one way or another recognizes the role of faith in a broad sense. German philosopher K. Jaspers substantiated, for example, the concept of “philosophical faith.” Similar concepts can be found in other philosophers. Philosophical faith is not an alternative to religious faith. On the one hand, any believer, regardless of religious affiliation, can accept it, without renouncing their religious beliefs. On the other hand, it is also acceptable for people who are religiously indifferent in matters of religion. Philosophical faith is opposed to superstition. Superstition is a thoughtless belief in omens and predictions of an arbitrary nature. She also rejects the worship of idols. Such worship places an individual or group of individuals on an unattainable pedestal, endowing them with the quality of infallibility. Finally, philosophical faith rejects fetishism. Fetishism is the worship of things. He wrongfully assigns absolute meaning to something that by its nature is temporary, conditional, transitory. Philosophical faith presupposes the recognition of what has unconditional value. It orients a person towards Eternal values. It is faith in that which is sacred, that which has lasting significance. In philosophical faith, faith in truth, goodness and beauty finds its expression, although they are difficult to achieve, they exist and deserve to be strived for. By focusing on the highest, faith helps to better navigate the earthly world and avoid its temptations and temptations. Therefore, according to K. Jaspers, “it can also be called faith in communication. For here two provisions are valid: truth is what connects us, and the origins of truth lie in communication. A person finds... another person as the only reality with which he can unite in understanding and trust. At all stages of the unification of people, fellow travelers in fate, lovingly, find the path to the truth, which is lost in isolation, in stubbornness and self-will, in closed loneliness.”

For well-being and prosperity modern world It is extremely important to find a way to establish a full-fledged dialogue between believers and non-believers, between people of different religious affiliations. Philosophy plays an important role in solving this problem.

LECTURES ON PHILOSOPHY

(2017-18 academic year)

Topic 1. Introduction.

a) The subject of philosophy.

b) The difference between philosophy and art and religion.

c) The difference between philosophy and specific sciences.

Topic 2. Thinking. Categories of existence.

a) Quality.

b) Quantity.

Topic 3. Thinking. Entity categories.

a) Existence.

b) Phenomenon. Form and content. Significant connections.

c) Reality.

Topic 4. Thinking. Categories of concept.

a) Definitions of the concept.

b) Judgments.

c) Inferences.

Topic 5. Nature. Celestial mechanics.

a) Space

c) Matter.

d) Movement.

Topic 6. Nature. Planet. (Skip)

Topic 7. Nature. Biosphere.

A) Living matter(Skip)

b) Kingdoms of living organisms.

c) Individual (Skip)

Topic 8. Nature. The human body.

a) The structure of the body.

b) The process of assimilation environment.

c) The birth process.

Topic 9. Human. Soul.

a) Natural qualities.

b) Feeling of oneself.

c) Appearance.

Topic 10. Human. Consciousness.

a) Consciousness as such.

b) Self-awareness.

Topic 11. Human. Intelligence.

a) Contemplation.

b) Presentation.

c) Thinking.

Topic 12. Human. Will.

a) Practical feeling.

b) Drives and arbitrariness.

c) Happiness.

Topic 13. Human. Freedom.

Topic 14. Society. Right.

a) Property.

b) Agreement.

c) The right to restore the violated right.

Topic 15. Society. Morality.

a) Intention and guilt.

b) Intention and goodness.

c) Duty and conscience. Good and evil. Immorality. Moral crimes.

Topic 16. Society. Moral.

b) Civil society: economics, justice, politics.

c) State.

Topic 17. Society. Philosophy of world history.

TOPIC 1. Introduction

Subject of philosophy,orwhy is it needed?

All knowledge acquired by humanity about nature and about itself is initially in the form of a simple accumulation of many side-by-side facts and information. But since the world itself is something whole, then, therefore, all disparate knowledge about it must be combined into one big picture, showing it as a whole. Spontaneously, such a holistic picture of the world does not arise in people’s minds. To create it, the purposeful activity of the intellect is required, the task of which is not only to produce private knowledge, but also to bring it to such a universal unity. This work of creating a unified picture of the world, showing it as a whole, is what philosophy is called upon to do.

But she is not the only one working in this direction. The same goal is pursued by art and religion.

The difference between philosophy and art and religion

The difference between these three forms of expression by people of their knowledge about the world is due to the three stages of activity of the human intellect. Intelligence – it is the inner workshop of our spirit. His task:

a) produce knowledge about the surrounding world,

b) store them,

c) transform them into various plans and projects for reorganizing the world.

Nothing else was given to him. AND intelligence And activity of cognition represent same . All human intellectual abilities - contemplation, representation, imagination, memory, thinking - have no independent meaning outside the activity of cognition and represent only its working moments.

The process of cognition includes three stages of intellectual activity:

a) contemplation

b) presentation,

c) thinking.

a) Contemplation

At the first stage, we only directly sense the objects that interest us: we see them, hear them, touch them, smell them, taste them.

b) Presentation

At the second stage, from the perceived sensations in our inner presentation images of objects are formed. At the same time, we may no longer contemplate the object itself. The ideal image preserved in our minds is enough for us.

The images of objects that find themselves in the sphere of human representation are freed from all their real connections. Because of this, our intellect gets the opportunity to express its imagination : associations and fantasies.

Associative ability imagination is based on the similarity (identity) and differences in the images of objects. The originality of associations depends mainly on the state of the person to whom they belong. They arise according to the principle: “whoever hurts something, talks about it.” An ordinary conversation between people gathered to chat about this, about that, develops precisely in line with the associations that spontaneously arise during it. They start talking about the weather, then move on to clothes, from clothes to prices, from prices to politics, etc.

During the activity of imagination, general ideas items. For example: an apple as such, a tree in general. General representations may be closely similar to their objects, or may not resemble them at all. The higher the level of generality of such ideas, the less they begin to resemble their own real prototypes. Thus the associative power of imagination passes into fantasy , creating its own world of artificial images.

However, once in the sphere of a person’s internal representation, the image of an object appears to be at a dead end. In order for us to be able to convey this image to other people, it must somehow be transferred again into external world. This problem is solved by manufacturing characters And signs .

When we use images of real objects to express the essence of our ideas, we create symbols . The fox expresses cunning. Ox – perseverance, the ability to move only forward. Leo – generosity. Etc. In this case, only one of its properties is taken from the image-symbol, namely the one that coincides with our idea. All other properties are not taken into account. Therefore, the symbol is always multi-valued. And we still have to guess what exactly it means.

But not all of the ideas generated by our imagination can be expressed through images of real objects. Our imagination in abundance creates such ideas, the content of which cannot fit into the images of either really existing objects, or, in principle, cannot be expressed through symbols. To externalize such ideas, the intellect is forced to create artificial images, which are called signs . Signs are made from some external material. At the same time, the content (meaning) of the image of the object represented by a person is embedded in the form of the sign. For example. To denote an image water, we draw two wavy lines on paper or sand.

A sign is an important step in the development of our intellect. If we designated with the help of some external material our internal representation, then we thereby gave this material a meaning alien to itself - the meaning of our representation. This denoting the activity of the intellect differs from symbolizing. A symbol can only be an object whose own content, to one degree or another, corresponds to the content of the idea that it expresses. In a sign, the external material and the meaning put into it (the content of the representation) no longer have anything in common with each other.

Accordingly, in order to use signs, people first have to learn to understand them meaning . For a person who does not know the meaning of a sign, it simply does not exist. The etymological chain of words speaks to this: sign– designation– meaning– know–knowledge - cognition etc.

Depending on the material from which the signs are created and the spatio-temporal parameters given to them, they are divided into two groups:

a) actually signs ,

b) signs-words .

Actually the signs. As examples of existence the actual signs you can cite a great variety of things around us: any uniform that indicates a person’s belonging to any service; caliber and number of stars on shoulder straps indicating its official position; road signs; corporate logo, hand gestures and facial expressions, crown and other royal appearance, presidential standard; a school bell signaling the start and end of classes; wedding ring on one of the hands; various graphs and lines of cardiograms, etc. What all signs have in common is that they do not mean at all what they are in their own way. natural material and form.

Signs-words. The most universal sign is word . Words are created out of thin air. Air is a plastic substance that instantly changes under the influence of voice and just as instantly restores its amorphism.

With the help of the larynx, tongue and lips we produce sounds . The combination of several sounds becomes in a word . The word attached to the image of an object becomes its name . The words themselves do not have names, since each is a name itself. The semantic connection of several words-names forms an independent fragment of speech: declarative sentence, judgment, inference. The sequential series of proposals amounts to speech . And the speech system developed in all its links represents a human language generally. ("And the Lord commanded Adam to give names to all objects.)

Writing- This sign sign. The word written on paper is graphic sign sounding words. Writing removes the transient nature of colloquial speech and gives it the form of sustainable existence in the form text.

The unity of the word-name and the content (meaning) of the representation it denotes ensures memory person. When a name is mentioned, memory reproduces all the material stored in our imagination related to the object it denotes. Thanks to memory, names and images of objects retain their connection with the real content of the world around us.

Word signs allowed people to convey their internal images and general ideas to each other. In other words, thanks to the use of words, people acquired speech and learned to speak. But in addition to this, thanks to words, people developed the third stage of activity of their intellect - the stage thinking.

c) Thinking

Thinking occurs only through words. By connecting words with each other, we create thoughts. Words make up the fabric of thought, and human language as a whole is the body of thought. Wordless, so-called non-verbal thinking, does not exist. Only words give thoughts real existence, and thinking is only capable of reflecting the content of the objective world to the extent that it operates with words.

At the stage of thinking, we comprehend the concepts of things. After the concept of a thing becomes the property of our intellect, we can mentally transform it, change the ratio of its sides, parts and elements. As a result, we create a relatively new concept that becomes project by changing (remaking, updating) the real object itself. This completes the theoretical activity of cognition. She is being replaced Practical activities to transform the outside world.

These are the three steps cognitive activity intellect: contemplation, representation, thinking. In accordance with these same steps, our intellect expresses its ready-made knowledge about the world.

At the first stage - contemplation - knowledge takes the form of works art . By processing any external material, the artist creates a sensually perceived creation, into the image of which he puts his ideal idea of ​​the world.

At the second stage - ideas - knowledge is expressed in the form religious pictures of the universe. The picture of the creation of the world presented in the Bible is not designed for thinking, but for the figurative representation of man. Because of this, it can only be taken on faith.

At the third stage - thinking - knowledge is expressed in the form of a scientific picture of the world, which is created concrete sciences in alliance with philosophy.

All stages of the activity of the intellect take part in the development of all three listed forms - contemplation, representation, and thinking. However, only one is decisive for each of them. In art - externally contemplated image. In religion - internally represented picture of the world. In science – rebuilt thinking concept of peace.

Religious views imply life in unity with God. The purpose of such spiritual communication is often to find ways to save the soul and find a strong life basis. Those who constantly abide in religion often find joy and peace of mind, experience peace and contentment.

Philosophy is the science of the most general laws existence, society and human thinking. It stands above personal interests. Final goal philosophical knowledge consists in establishing and comprehending the relationships between objectively existing phenomena of the material and spiritual world.

If religion implies the primacy of faith, then philosophy is built on a solid foundation of objective and verifiable knowledge about the nature of things.

Comprehension of religious truths does not require a person to make logical constructions and clearly deduced proofs of the existence of God, which, according to theologians, is the basis of the universe. The dogmas of the church require faith, not scientific research and strictly verified justifications. Philosophy seeks to find the objective fundamental basis of the world, relying on the achievements of modern sciences and empirical data that can be measured and systematized.

Similarities between philosophical and religious worldviews

The main similarity between religion and philosophy is that both of these forms of spiritual activity are aimed at comprehending the truth. Both religion and philosophy strive to penetrate deeply into the essence of existence and provide answers to those questions that have troubled humanity since ancient times.

What is life and death? What is good and evil? What is the purpose of man and humanity as a whole? These and similar questions are at the center of religion and philosophy, although they are resolved from different positions.

Religion, like philosophy, is characterized by the desire to obtain an answer to the question about the driving forces of life in the most general sense of the word. In both areas of spiritual activity there is a transcendence of visible existence and transcendental experience. Some provisions modern science, on which philosophy relies, are so far unprovable, which translates them into the category of assumptions requiring faith or denial.

Philosophy and religion actually help a person create a complete picture of the world. In this case, it often does not matter what methods and methods are used to achieve this goal. Both directions mutually enrich and complement each other, have a direct impact on the formation of a person’s personality and his system of views on life, nature and society.

Religion and Science. The two most important socio-cultural institutions. Two approaches to studying the world and the phenomena occurring in it. The eternal confrontation between calculating, rational thinking and comprehensive love, feelings, faith and spirituality. Despite such different foundations and ways of knowing, science and religion have much in common.

Instructions

Religion and science are two types of ideas about reality. This is their main similarity. Religion implies the existence of a higher mind, which is a systematized and organized body of knowledge about existence. Science is engaged in a constant search for facts and objective knowledge about reality, about the world and its laws, updating and systematizing this information. The goal here and there is the same - knowledge, only the approaches are different.

Christ, Muhammad, Gautama. Aristotle, Newton, Mendeleev. Whatever the approach, the process of cognition cannot do without individuals. The founders of both have always been people who strive for knowledge, who have learned, and who teach others. The role of the individual is great both at the origins and throughout the development of science and religion.

Religions are based on faith. This is faith in God, in a higher mind, in heaven and hell, in enlightenment and nirvana, in the knowledge given by religious teachers. Science is also faith at its core. Belief in patterns, facts, the rational structure of the world. A person does not drink gasoline - this is reasonable. In geometry, a straight line passes through any two points - this is a fact, a pattern.

Science is based on knowledge accumulated over the years, changing in the process of cognition. They used to think that the sun was around the Earth, but later they proved the opposite. This has become a fact based on which there are many theories. Religion also relies on knowledge. Bible, Koran, Upanishads, Tripitaka and others. All religions are based on original texts and knowledge that were given by some teachers. Reliance on knowledge is the most important similarity between religion and science.

The original goal of science is to change the world for the better, to make the existence of people on the planet easier. Caring for a person is

Religion is a worldview, moral standards and a cult based on belief in some kind of supernatural. Based on faith and does not require proof.

Myth is a legend that conveys people’s ideas about the world, man’s place in it, the origin of all things, about gods and heroes. Story-based performance.

Science – facts, evidence, exploration of an area of ​​reality in order to identify patterns. Unlike philosophy, science has no value.

The main question of philosophy according to F. Engels. Major philosophical trends (idealism, materialism, skepticism, agnosticism).

The Basic Question of Philosophy-the question of the relationship of consciousness to being, spiritual to material, i.e. about the relationship of thinking to being. According to Engels, philosophers were divided into two large camps according to how they answered this question. Those who argued that spirit existed before nature formed the idealistic camp. Those who considered nature to be the main principle joined various schools of materialism.

The question of the relationship of thinking to being (spirit to nature, consciousness to matter, ideal to material, etc.) in different times expressed in different forms and was formulated differently. In its classic formulation, “What is primary: spirit or nature?” it plays a prominent role in both ancient and medieval philosophy, and in modern times it has taken on a more acute form: was the world created by God or has it existed from eternity?

So, the philosophical position, according to which the world around us is explained based on the material principle, nature, objective reality, constituted the materialist direction.

Those philosophers who took the ideal principle (spirit, consciousness, will, sensations, etc.) as the basis for their understanding of the world formed the idealistic direction. This direction breaks down into two varieties - the objective (superhuman) ideal principle (for example, the world of absolute ideas of Plato, the world mind of Hegel) and subjective idealism for which (the starting point is the “I” of an individual subject (thus, according to D. Berkeley, things are a combination of sensations ).

Great philosophical trends

Materialism(the so-called “line of Democritus”) - a direction in philosophy, whose supporters believed that in the relationship between matter and consciousness, matter is primary. Hence:

Matter really exists;

Matter exists independently of consciousness (that is, it exists independently of thinking beings and whether anyone thinks about it or not);

Matter is an independent substance - it does not need anything other than itself for its existence;

Matter exists and develops according to its own internal laws;

Consciousness (spirit) is the property (mode) of highly organized matter to reflect itself (matter);

Consciousness is not an independent substance existing along with matter;

Consciousness is determined by matter (being).

Idealism- a direction in philosophy, whose supporters considered consciousness (idea, spirit) to be primary in the relationship between matter and consciousness.

In idealism there are two independent directions:

Objective idealism

Subjective idealism

Skepticism- philosopher a direction that questions the possibility of knowing reality or some fragment of it. Skepticism may concern the limits of knowledge and argue that no knowledge at all or any absolute, undoubted, complete or perfect knowledge is inaccessible to man; that no knowledge, even if it is achieved, can be recognized as such; that no certain knowledge concerning certain objects (eg God, oneself, values, the world as a whole, causality, etc.) is achievable; that certain types of knowledge cannot be obtained by certain methods (for example, through reasoning, inference, direct observation, etc.). Skepticism may concern the method of obtaining knowledge and argue that every hypothesis must be subject to never-ending tests; that all methods of obtaining knowledge do not give undoubted results; that knowledge in all or in certain areas is based on unprovable assumptions, etc.

Agnosticism

Agnosticism is a philosophy. a doctrine that affirms the unknowability of the world.

1. Agnosticism denies the possibility of knowing the material, objective world, knowing the truth, rejects objective knowledge.

2. In relation to God, agnosticism denies the possibility of “knowledge of God,” i.e. obtaining knowledge (any reliable information) about God, and even more so denies even the very possibility of resolving the question of the existence of God.

Philosophy of ancient China and ancient India.

Philosophy Ancient China

3-2 millennium BC

1. Ethical orientation of philosophy.

Ethics is a problematic area of ​​philosophy, the object of study of which is morality. The substantive and formal features of ethics are determined by three constants: the essence of morality as an object of study; ways of its theoretical understanding and description in the sociocultural context

2.I am not interested in the problems of the structure of the World.

Confucianism and Taoism arose:

Confucianism- ethical and philosophical teaching developed by Confucius (551-479 BC). Starting position Confucianism is the concept of Heaven (Tian) and heavenly command. (order, i.e. fate). Heaven is part of nature, but at the same time it is also the highest spiritual power that determines nature itself and man (Life and death are determined by fate, wealth and nobility depend on Heaven). A person endowed by Heaven with certain ethical qualities must act in accordance with them and with the highest moral law (Tao), and also improve these qualities through education.

The goal of self-improvement is to reach the level of a noble husband, this level does not depend on social origin, and is achieved through cultivating high moral qualities and culture. A noble husband must, first of all, have humanity, humanity and love for people. The qualities of a noble husband are based on the principle - what you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others.

Taoism arose in the IV-III centuries BC. It says that there is a universal law - Tao, the universe, which attracts the World for the better and leads to the fact that it is constantly changing. Nothing is stable. Everything obeys this law.

The world is moving towards better things

There are no gods, because nothing is permanent

The social ideals of Taoism were a return to the “natural,” primitive state and intra-community equality. Taoism condemned wars, opposed the wealth and luxury of the nobility, and the cruelty of rulers. The founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, put forward the theory

“inaction”, calling the masses to passivity, to follow the “Tao” - the natural course of things.

Philosophy of Ancient India.

The religion of Hinduism played a major role in the spiritual life of India.

Hinduism- religious system.

The polytheism characteristic of Hinduism (not limited to the worship of the main triad - Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu) made it possible to choose both the object of the cult itself and the form of its veneration, depending on specific purpose appeals to the deity, each of which was assigned certain functions, and also depending on the direction in Hinduism that the Indian adhered to, be it Shaivism, Vaishnavism or their many varieties.

In the field of philosophy, Hinduism developed the problem of the relationship between the general and the particular, the finite and the infinite, the unity of the Cosmos, the Absolute, and the relativity of truth. The breadth of Hinduism was also manifested in the development of spatio-temporal characteristics, the unit of cosmic time being the “day of Brahma,” equal to 4320 minutes of astronomical years. Hence the idea of ​​the frailty and immediacy of the present, which determined the quietism, speculativeness and contemplation of philosophical systems based on Hinduism.

The central place in the philosophical concept of Hinduism is occupied by the doctrine of the transmigration of souls in accordance with merits and actions in previous births (karma). The goal of any Hindu cult is to realize the connection with its object, the disappearance of the opposition of the individual soul to the world.

In accordance with religious and philosophical ideas, Hinduism has developed certain norms of social institutions with detailed regulation of behavior depending on the individual’s place in the social caste hierarchy, as well as depending on his age, highlighting four periods (ashrams) in life: apprenticeship, leadership in the family , hermitage, hermitage and detachment from earthly things.

Much earlier (mid-1st millennium BC) Buddhism took shape in India.

Buddhism. According to Buddhism, life in all its manifestations is an expression of various combinations or “flows” of immaterial particles. These combinations determine the existence of a particular person, animal, plant, etc. After the decay of the corresponding combination, death occurs, but these particles do not disappear without a trace, but form a new combination; this determines the rebirth of the individual in accordance with the law - retribution depending on behavior in a previous life. The endless chain of rebirths can be interrupted, and everyone should strive for this; the cessation of rebirths that cause suffering means the achievement of nirvana - a state of peace, bliss, merging with the Buddha. But achieving such a super-existence is possible only by leading a virtuous life.

The basis of the teaching is the “four great truths.” The truths proclaim that 1) life is suffering, 2) the cause of all suffering is desires, 3) suffering can be stopped by getting rid of desires,

“extinguishing” the latter, and for this it is necessary 4) to lead a virtuous life according to the laws of “correct behavior” and “correct knowledge”. “Right conduct” means living by the following principles: do not kill or harm anyone, do not steal, do not lie, do not commit adultery, and do not drink mind-numbing drinks. For monasticism, moreover, the main line of behavior should be asceticism, and therefore Buddhist monks It is forbidden to be present at entertainment, to sleep on a comfortable bed, to use rubbings, incense, perfume, to own gold and silver; and also eat in the afternoon. “Correct knowledge” implies self-deepening and internal contemplation - meditation. “Right behavior” and “right knowledge” allow a person to gradually break out of the endless chain of rebirths and achieve nirvana.

The basis for comparing philosophy, mythology and religion is that they are special forms public consciousness, reflecting spiritual, cultural and ideological aspects in understanding human essence, the nature of things and the laws of existence. These aspects are manifested in various ways in religious and philosophical teachings, the roots of which go back to Indo-European and Eastern mythology.

Definition

Mythology- a special figurative-epic form of comprehension of the world that arises in early period development public relations among most nationalities and ethnic groups. In ancient myths, the picture of the universe combines reality and fiction, knowledge and beliefs, natural and supernatural, thought and emotional perception of reality.

Religion- an ordered system of views and beliefs, based on faith in a higher mind and divine spirituality, to which it is subordinated human life and everything that happens on earth. Religious ideas are formed at a certain stage in the formation of social structures and are always correlated with their hierarchical structure.

Philosophy– the highest form of social consciousness, manifested in intellectual and spiritual activity aimed at posing and analyzing ideological issues. Philosophical teachings, schools and directions are formed on the basis of practical experience and a deep understanding of the patterns of development of the material and non-material world.

Comparison

Mythology reflects direct collective thinking based on empirical experience, aimed at determining the place of man in the natural world. In myths, he is given the modest role of executor of the will of the gods, personifying the mighty forces of heaven, earth and the water element.

The poetics of myths is based on allegorical images and metaphors that have multiple meanings. Their epic form presents the world in a generalized form, as a given that does not require explanation.

The naivety of mystical ideas and the impossibility of identifying the object of knowledge in them does not at all detract from the importance of mythology as a powerful layer of spiritual culture. It was on its basis that philosophical thinking developed, the focus of which was man, his feelings, language, morality, creativity, patterns historical processes and natural phenomena.

Proceedings ancient Greek philosophers Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle marked the beginning of the development of philosophy as a science. Its main directions are defined as ontology - the study of being, epistemology - the study of knowledge, logic - the study of forms of thinking and aesthetics - the study of the harmonious structure of the world.

Religion differs from philosophy in that it explains existence not from the point of view of its cognition and self-development, but as a manifestation of the will of a higher deity, incomprehensible to human consciousness. If philosophy is characterized by logical analysis, generalizations, reasoned evidence and conclusions, religion is based on unconditional faith. Religious consciousness manifests itself at the ideological level - in theology, ethics, theosophical doctrines of the church, and at the psychological level - as a stereotype of the behavior and emotional states of believers. A socially significant form of religion is a cult, in which a system of ethical ideals and ritual actions is developed and approved.

Conclusions website

1. Mythology recreates a figurative picture of the world. In religion, ideas about the universe are formed on the basis of faith. The content of philosophy is scientifically based worldview concepts.
2. The focus of mythology and religion is the gods. The attention of philosophy is focused on man.
3. In mythology and religion, the human capacity for knowledge is ignored. The essence of philosophy is the knowledge and explanation of life in all its manifestations.
4. Mythology – collective folk art. Religion is a belief system and form of government human consciousness. Philosophy is a humanitarian science.