Philosophy- one of the most insidious humanities. It is she who sets the most important and most difficult questions, such as: what is being? why are we in this world? what is the sense of life? Many books have been written about each of these questions, the authors of which set themselves the goal of giving us an answer, and often they themselves got confused in search of the truth. Among the many philosophers of all times, ten have especially distinguished themselves - it was they who solved the most significant issues of mankind, laid the foundations of philosophical thought ...

Parmenides (circa 510 BC)
Like many philosophers before Socrates, Parmenides was distinguished by incomprehensibility and a certain madness. He became the founder of the philosophical school in Elea. From the works of the philosopher, only his poem "On Nature" has come down to us.

Dealt with issues of being and knowledge. He believed that being exists, and non-being does not. Since thinking is being, and it is impossible to think about non-being, then non-being itself does not exist. A little crazy, but logical, right?
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Both Socrates and Plato were mighty pillars ancient philosophy, but after reading the works of Aristotle, you understand that this man was, among other things, a great educator. The concepts of the school of Aristotle were continued by his numerous students, therefore it is often difficult for modern scientists to determine whether certain works belong to the hand of a great thinker.

He became the first scientist who compiled a versatile system of philosophy - the basis of many modern sciences. Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, his views on the physical side of the world greatly influenced the further development
Marcus Aurelius (121-180)
Marcus Aurelius distinguished himself by being not only a Roman emperor, but also one of the outstanding humanist philosophers of his time. His work "Meditations" was not written for prying eyes. It was a way to express the conviction of the Stoic philosophers, and sometimes disagreement with their ideas.

Marcus Aurelius distributes bread to the people (1765)
Stoicism for most Romans and Greeks was not only a way of patience, but also a way to determine the path to happy life. The book of Marcus Aurelius is easy to read and can help to resolve the hardships of life and modern people. Interestingly, the ideas of humanism, which the emperor professed, did not prevent him from persecuting the first Christians.
Saint Anselma of Canterbury (1003-1109)
Catholic theologian, medieval philosopher, considered the father of scholasticism, known for his work Proslogium. In it, he brought unshakable proof of the existence of God.

His statements are known - "Faith that requires understanding" and "I believe in order to understand" - later became the slogans of the Augustinian philosophical school, and his followers (in particular, Thomas Aquinas) shared the point of view of Anselm of Canterbury on the relationship of faith and reason.
Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677)
Spinoza grew up in a Jewish family that lived in the Netherlands. At the age of 24, he was excommunicated from the Jewish community, mainly because of ideas that were contrary to established traditions in society.

Having moved to The Hague, Spinoza all his later life He earned his living by polishing lenses and giving private lessons. In between these trivial pursuits, he wrote philosophical treatises. Ethics came out after Spinoza's death.
The works of the philosopher are a synthesis of the scientific ideas of the Middle Ages and Ancient Greece philosophies of the Stoics, Neoplatonists and Scholastics. He tried to extend the "Copernican revolution" to the spheres of metaphysics, psychology, ethics and politics.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
He is described as a little ugly pessimist who spent his whole life with his mother and a cat. How did he end up among the greatest thinkers? “Will is a thing in itself” is one of Schopenhauer's aphorisms, which is also his hallmark.

Interestingly, Schopenhauer was an atheist, but at the same time sympathetic to Christianity. He studied the philosophy of the East and was fond of the works of Immanuel Kant. Schopenhauer entered the cohort of the brightest representatives of irrationalism.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
One of the youngest philosophers of all time has won a place among the most prominent thinkers. He is mistakenly attributed to the supporters of the fascists, although in fact his sister was a nationalist, Nietzsche himself was not too interested in life around him. He owns famous expression"God is dead".

Nietzsche in a sense reproduced the interest in philosophy, revived it. His first work is The Birth of Tragedy. Because of this work, the thinker is still called the “terrible child” (enfant terrible) of modern philosophy.
Roman Ingarden (1893-1970)
Pole Roman Ingarden - a student of Hans-Georges Gadamer, one of the most significant figures in the philosophy of the twentieth century.

The realistic Phenomenology of Ingerden has not lost its significance to this day, and the Literary Work of Art and Ontology of the Work of Art are the best examples of aesthetic phenomenology.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
He is adored in France. He is the most prominent representative of existentialism. "Being and Nothing" is one of the most controversial works of the philosopher, the Bible of young intellectuals.

The talented writer finally wins the Nobel Prize (1964). According to his contemporaries, no Frenchman can compare with his contribution to what Sartre gave to the world.
Maurice Merleau-Ponte (1908-1961)
Merleau-Ponte, at one time a like-minded and comrade of Sartre, departs from existentialist-communist views and expresses his vision of the problem in the work “Humanism and Terror”. Researchers rightly consider it close to fascist ideology. In the collection of essays, the author criticizes the supporters of Marxist philosophy.

It should be noted that the works of Freud and representatives of Gestalt psychology had a great influence on the philosopher's worldview. Based on their postulates, he creates his own "phenomenology of the body." According to her, the body is neither a pure being nor a natural thing. The body acts as a turning point between nature and culture, between alien and own.
The Frenchman Merleau-Ponte is considered one of the greatest thinkers of the second half of the twentieth century.

The most famous philosophers
Among all the humanities, it is philosophy that is called the most insidious. After all, it is she who asks humanity such complex, but also important questions, such as: “What is being?”, “What is the meaning of life?”, “Why do we live in this world?”. Hundreds of volumes have been written about each of these topics, their authors have tried to find an answer...
But more often than not, they became even more confused in their search for truth. Among the numerous philosophers who have been noted in history, 10 of the most important can be distinguished. After all, it was they who laid the foundations for future thought processes, over which other scientists had already struggled.
Parmenides
Parmenides (520-450 BC). This ancient Greek philosopher lived before Socrates. Like many other thinkers of that era, he was distinguished by incomprehensibility and even a kind of madness. Parmenides became the founder of a whole philosophical school in Elea. His poem "On Nature" has come down to us. In it, the philosopher discusses the issues of knowledge and being. Parmenides reasoned that there is only eternal and unchanging Being, which is identified with thinking. According to his logic, it is impossible to think about non-existence, which means that it does not exist. After all, the thought “there is something that is not there” is contradictory. Zeno of Elea is considered the main student of Parmenides, but the works of the philosopher also influenced Plato and Melissa.
Aristotle
Aristotle (384-322 BC). Along with Aristotle, Plato and Socrates are also considered to be the pillars of ancient philosophy. But it was this man who was also distinguished by his educational activities. Aristotle's school gave him a big impetus in the development of creativity of numerous students. Today, scientists cannot even figure out exactly which of the works belong to the great thinker. Aristotle was the first scientist who was able to create a versatile philosophical system. Later it will form the basis of many modern sciences. It was this philosopher who created formal logic. And his views on the physical foundations of the universe significantly changed the further development of human thinking. The central teaching of Aristotle was the doctrine of the first causes - matter, form, cause and purpose. This scientist laid the concept of space and time. Aristotle paid much attention to the theory of the state. It is no coincidence that his most successful student, Alexander the Great, achieved so much.
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius (121-180). This man went down in history not only as a Roman emperor, but also as an outstanding humanist philosopher of his era. Under the influence of another philosopher, his teacher Maximus Claudius, Marcus Aurelius created 12 books in Greek, united by the common title "Discourses about oneself." The work "Meditations" was written for the inner world of philosophers. There the emperor spoke about the beliefs of the Stoic philosophers, but did not accept all their ideas. Stoicism was an important phenomenon for the Greeks and Romans, because it determined not only the rules for patience, but also indicated the path to happiness. Marcus Aurelius believed that all people, through their spirit, participate in an ideological community that has no limits. The works of this philosopher are easy to read today, helping to solve some life problems. Interestingly, the philosopher's humanistic ideas did not at all prevent him from persecuting the first Christians.
Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109). This medieval philosopher did a lot for Catholic theology. He is even considered the father of scholasticism, and famous work Anselm of Canterbury became "Proslogion". In it, with the help of ontological evidence, he gave unshakable evidence of the existence of God. The existence of God stemmed from his very concept. Anselm came to the conclusion that God is perfection, existing outside of us and outside of this world, surpassing everything conceivable in size. The main statements of the philosopher "faith that requires understanding" and "I believe in order to understand" then became the original mottos of the Augustinian philosophical school. Among the followers of Anselm was Thomas Aquinas. The philosopher's students continued to develop his views on the relationship between faith and reason. For his work for the benefit of the church in 1494, Anselm was canonized, becoming a saint. And in 1720, Pope Clement XI proclaimed the saint a Doctor of the Church.
Benedict Spinoza
Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677). Spinoza was born into a Jewish family, his ancestors settled in Amsterdam after being expelled from Portugal. In his youth, the philosopher studies the works of the best Jewish minds. But Spinoza began to express orthodox views and became close to the sectarians, which led to excommunication from the Jewish community. After all, his advanced views were in conflict with hardened social views. Spinoza fled to The Hague, where he continued to improve. He made his living by polishing lenses and giving private lessons. And in his free time from these ordinary activities, Spinoza wrote his philosophical works. In 1677, the scientist died of tuberculosis, his deep-seated illness was also aggravated by inhalation of lens dust. Only after the death of Spinoza did his main work, Ethics, come out. The works of the philosopher synthesized together the scientific ideas of Ancient Greece and the Middle Ages, the works of the Stoics, Neoplatonists and Scholastics. Spinoza tried to transfer the influence of Copernicus on science into the realm of ethics, politics, metaphysics and psychology. Spinoza's metaphysics was based on logic, that it is necessary to define terms, formulate axioms, and only then, with the help of logical consequences, deduce the rest of the provisions.
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). The philosopher's contemporaries remembered him as a small, ugly pessimist. He spent most of his life with his mother and a cat in his apartment. Nevertheless, this suspicious and ambitious man was able to break into the ranks of the most important thinkers, becoming the most prominent representative of irrationalism. The source of Schopenhauer's ideas was Plato, Kant and the ancient Indian treatise Upanishads. The philosopher was one of the first who dared to combine Eastern and Western culture. The difficulty of synthesis was that the first is irrational, and the second, on the contrary, is rational. The philosopher paid much attention to the issues of human will, his most famous aphorism was the phrase "Will is a thing in itself." After all, it is she who determines the existence, influencing it. The main work of the philosopher's entire life was his "The World as Will and Representation". Schopenhauer outlined the main ways decent life- art, moral asceticism and philosophy. In his opinion, it is art that can free the soul from life's suffering. Others must be treated as if they were oneself. Although the philosopher sympathized with Christianity, he remained an atheist.
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). This man, despite a relatively short life, was able to achieve a lot in philosophy. Nietzsche's name is usually associated with fascism. In fact, he was not a nationalist like his sister. The philosopher was generally little interested in life around him. Nietzsche was able to create an original teaching that has nothing to do with the academic character. The works of the scientist called into question the generally accepted norms of morality, culture, religion and socio-political relations. What is worth only famous phrase Nietzsche "God is dead." The philosopher was able to revive interest in philosophy, blowing up the stagnant world with new views. Nietzsche's first work, The Birth of Tragedy, immediately awarded the author with the label "terrible child of modern philosophy." The scientist tried to understand what morality is. According to his views, one should not think about its truth, one should consider its service to a purpose. Nietzsche's pragmatic approach is also noted in relation to philosophy and culture in general. The philosopher was able to derive the formula of a superman who would not be limited by morality and morality, standing aside from good and evil.
Roman Ingarden
Roman Ingarden (1893-1970). This Pole was one of the most prominent philosophers of the last century. He was a student of Hans-Georges Gadamer. Ingarden survived the Nazi occupation in Lvov, continuing to work on his main work, The Dispute about the Existence of the World. In this two-volume book, the philosopher talks about art. Aesthetics, ontology and epistemology became the basis of the philosopher's activity. Ingarden laid the foundations for a realistic phenomenology that is still relevant today. The philosopher also studied literature, cinema, and the theory of knowledge. Ingarden translated into Polish philosophical works, including Kant, and taught a lot at universities.
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980). This philosopher is very loved and popular in France. This is the most bright representative atheistic existentialism. His positions were close to Marxism. At the same time, Sartre was also a writer, playwright, essayist and teacher. At the heart of the work of philosophers is the concept of freedom. Sartre thought she was absolute concept, man is simply condemned to be free. We must shape ourselves by being responsible for our actions. Sartre said: "Man is the future of man." The surrounding world has no meaning, it is the person who changes it with his activity. The work of the philosopher "Being and Nothing" has become a real Bible for young intellectuals. Nobel Prize on literature, Sartre refused to accept, as he did not want to question his independence. The philosopher in his political activity has always defended the rights of the disadvantaged and humiliated person. When Sartre died, 50,000 people gathered to see him off on his last journey. Contemporaries believe that no other Frenchman has given the world as much as this philosopher.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961). This French philosopher at one time was an adherent of Sartre, being an adherent of existentialism and phenomenology. But then he moved away from communist views. Merleau-Ponty outlined the main ideas in his work Humanism and Terror. Researchers believe that it has features akin to fascist ideology. In the collection of his works, the author harshly criticizes the supporters of Marxism. The philosopher's worldview was influenced by Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche and Freud, he himself was fond of the ideas of Gestalt psychology. Based on the work of his predecessors and working on the unknown works of Edmund Husserl, Merleau-Ponty was able to create his own phenomenology of the body. This teaching says that the body is neither a pure being nor a natural thing. This is just a turning point between culture and nature, between one's own and another's. The body in his understanding is a holistic "I", which is the subject of thinking, speech and freedom. The original philosophy of this Frenchman forced to rethink traditional philosophical topics in a new way. It is no coincidence that he is considered one of the main thinkers of the twentieth century ... they dusali

Philosophy forces us to ask questions and reflect on everything we take for granted. So today we have made for you a selection of outstanding thinkers, both modern and past, so that you move your rusty convolutions at your leisure, picking up any of the works of the men and women below.

1. Hannah Arendt

Hannah Arendt is one of the most famous political philosophers modern age. After being expelled from Germany in 1933, she seriously thought about the burning issues of our time and began to diligently seek answers to the main questions of life, the universe and everything in general. Completely immersed in herself and in her reflections on politics, civil society, the origins of totalitarianism, evil and forgiveness, Hanna tried through her search to come to terms with the terrible political events of that time. And although it is rather difficult to classify Arendt's ideas according to one general scheme, Hanna in each of her works (and there are more than 450 of them) calls on humanity to "think carefully about what we are doing."

The most famous works:
"The Origins of Totalitarianism", 1951
"The Banality of Evil: Eichmann in Jerusalem", 1963

2. Noam Chomsky

Professor of Linguistics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology By day and a critic of American US politics by night, Noam Chomsky is an active philosopher outside and within the academic realm. His political comments hit not in the eyebrow, but in two eyes at once. This philosopher asks questions aimed at creating new conclusions for the public. Chomsky changed the face of linguistics in the mid-20th century by publishing his classification of formal languages, called the Chomsky hierarchy. And the New York Times Book Review stated that "Noam Chomsky is perhaps the most important intellectual alive today."

The most famous works:
"Syntactic Structures", 1957
"The problem of knowledge and freedom", 1971
Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, 1992
"Hegemony or the struggle for survival: the US quest for world domination", 2003

3. Alain de Botton

The English writer and philosopher, member of the Royal Society of Literature and television presenter Alain de Botton is sure that, as in ancient Greece, modern philosophy must also have some practical value for society. His writings, documentaries and discussions affect completely various aspects human life, starting from the professional work area, ending with the problems personal development and the search for love and happiness.

The most famous works:
"Experiences of love", 1997
Status Concern, 2004
"Architecture of Happiness", 2006

4. Epicurus

Epicurus is an ancient Greek philosopher, born on the Greek island of Samos, and the founder. Great thinker of the past categorically insisted that the road to happiness lies through the search for pleasure. Surround yourself with friends, stay self-sufficient and don't go on the rampage - this is his unchanging principle. The word "Epicurean" has become synonymous with gluttony and idleness due to provisions taken out of context. Well, we invite you to personally read the works of the famous philosopher and draw your own conclusions.

The most famous works:
Collection of aphorisms "Main thoughts"

5. Arne Ness

Alpinist, public figure and philosopher, originally from Norway, Arne Naess was a major player in the global environmental movement and the author of a unique point of view in the debate about the destruction of the natural world. Ness is considered the creator of the concept of "deep ecology" and the founder of the eponymous movement.

The most famous works:
"Interpretation and Accuracy", 1950

6. Martha Nussbaum

American Martha Nussbaum talks loudly about social justice based on ancient philosophy Aristotle, where each person is the bearer of an inalienable dignity. Nussbaum argues that, regardless of intelligence, age or gender, every member of the human race should be treated in this respectful manner. Martha is also sure that society does not function for mutual benefit, but for the sake of love for each other. Finally, strength positive thinking no one has canceled yet.

The most famous works:
“Not for profit. Why do democracies need humanitarian sciences", 2014

7. Jean-Paul Sartre

His name has practically become synonymous with existentialism. The French philosopher, playwright and novelist, who created his main works between 1930 and 1940, bequeathed to his descendants the great idea that man is doomed to freedom. However, we have already written about this, and if by a fatal coincidence you missed this article, you can fill in the gap

The most famous works:
"Nausea", 1938
"Per behind closed doors", 1943

8. Peter Singer

Since the publication of his famous book Animal Liberation in 1975, Australian philosopher Peter Singer has become a cult figure for all animal rights activists. Get ready for this dude to make you rethink your food on your plate and inspire you to make small sacrifices for those less fortunate.

The most famous works:
Animal Liberation, 1975

9. Baruch Spinoza

Although the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza lived in the 17th century, his philosophy is in many ways still relevant today. In his major work, Ethics, Spinoza describes his subject matter as if it were a mathematical equation and protests against the idea of ​​the absolute freedom of the human person, arguing that even our mind works according to the principles of the physical laws of nature.

The most famous works:
"Ethics", 1674

10. Slavoj Zizek

The Slovenian philosopher, cultural critic and founder of the Ljubljana School of Philosophy Slavoj Zizek has become a significant figure in modern pop culture. Slava calls himself a "militant atheist", and his books instantly sell out in huge numbers and become bestsellers.

The most famous works:
“The Year of the Impossible. The art of dreaming is dangerous”, 2012
"Welcome to the desert of reality", 2002
"Doll and dwarf. Christianity Between Heresy and Revolt”, 2009

Russian philosophy is an original section of world philosophical thought. We present the 20 greatest Russian thinkers who had the strongest influence on the views of contemporaries and descendants and on the course of Russian history.

The focus of attention of Russian philosophers, as a rule, is not abstract metaphysical constructions, but ethical and religious problems, the concepts of freedom and justice, as well as the question of the role and place of Russia in world history.

Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev (1794–1856)

"Basman Philosopher"

"We do not belong to either the West or the East, we are an exceptional people."

Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev in his youth was a man of the world, a brilliant guards officer. Pushkin and other most remarkable people of the era were proud of meeting him. After retiring and having made a long trip abroad, he changed and began to lead a life close to a recluse.

Most of the time Chaadaev spent in a Moscow house on Novaya Basmannaya, for which he received the nickname "Basmanny Philosopher".

The publication of his "Philosophical Letters" provoked the wrath of Nicholas I: "After reading the article, I find that the content of it is a mixture of impudent nonsense worthy of a madman." Chaadaev was officially declared insane. Subsequently, medical supervision was removed, but on the condition that he "did not dare to write anything." Nevertheless, the philosopher wrote the Madman's Apology, which remained unpublished for a long time even after his death.

The main theme of Chaadaev's philosophical writings is reflections on the historical fate and role of Russia in world civilization. On the one hand, he was convinced that "we are called upon to solve most of the problems of the social order ..., to answer the most important questions that occupy humanity." On the other hand, he complained about the fact that Russia was excommunicated from the world-historical process. Chaadaev saw one of the reasons for this in Orthodoxy and believed that all Christians should unite under the auspices of catholic church. The ultimate goal of history according to Chaadaev is the realization of the kingdom of God on earth, which he understood as a single, just society. Both Slavophiles and Westerners relied on his concepts.

Alexei Stepanovich Khomyakov (1804–1860)

First Slavophile

"Each people represents the same living face as every person."

Alexei Stepanovich Khomyakov was a multifaceted thinker: philosopher, theologian, historian, economist, poet, engineer. Disillusioned with Western civilization, Khomyakov came up with the idea of ​​a special path for Russia, and over time became the leader of a new direction in Russian social thought, which was later called Slavophilism. Alexei Stepanovich died during a cholera epidemic, having become infected from the peasants whom he himself treated.

The main (and, alas, unfinished) philosophical work of Khomyakov is Notes on world history", With light hand Gogol nicknamed "Semiramide". In his opinion, each nation has a special historical mission, in which one of the sides of the world Absolute is manifested.

The mission of Russia is Orthodoxy, and its historical task is the liberation of the world from the one-sided development imposed by Western civilization.

Khomyakov believed that every nation can deviate from its mission; this is what happened to Russia because of the reforms of Peter the Great. Now she needs to get rid of the slavish imitation of the West and return to her own path.

Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (1828–1889)

"Reasonable Egoist"

“Nonsense is in people’s heads, that’s why they are poor and miserable, evil and unhappy; it is necessary to explain to them what is the truth and how they should think and live.

Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky was born into the family of a priest and studied at the theological seminary. Contemporaries said of him that he was "a man close to holiness." Despite this, his philosophical views were distinguished by extreme materialism. Chernyshevsky was a recognized leader revolutionary democrats. In 1862, on an unproven charge, he was arrested, convicted, and spent more than twenty years in prison, in hard labor and in exile. His main work is the novel What Is To Be Done? written by him in Peter and Paul Fortress. He had a huge impact on the youth of that time, in particular, on Vladimir Ulyanov, who said that this novel “plowed everything deep”.

The basis of Chernyshevsky's ethical concept is "reasonable egoism":

“The individual does what is most pleasant for him to do, guided by a calculation that tells him to give up less benefit and less pleasure in order to obtain greater benefit, more pleasure.”

However, from it he draws conclusions about the need for altruism. Based on this, Chernyshevsky substantiated the possibility of building a free and just society on a voluntary basis, where not competition reigns, but cooperation and mutual assistance.

Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (1828–1910)

non-resistance

"Be kind and do not resist evil with violence."

Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy, the greatest Russian writer, philosophical questions occupied all his life. Over time, he practically abandoned literary creativity and devoted himself to resolving moral and religious issues. As a result, a new doctrine arose, Tolstoyism. Tolstoy himself believed that in this way he cleanses Christianity of historical distortions and contrasted the moral teachings of Christ official religion. His views led to conflicts with secular and spiritual authorities and ended in excommunication.

At the end of his life, Tolstoy made an attempt to live in full harmony with his teachings and secretly left home, but soon died.

The main position of Tolstoy's teaching is non-resistance to evil by violence. It involves pacifism, refusal to perform any public duties and strict vegetarianism. Tolstoy denied the need for state institutions and agreed with the anarchists in this, however, he believed that the abolition of the state should occur in a natural, non-violent way.

Nikolai Fedorovich Fedorov (1829–1903)

"Moscow Socrates"

“If there is love between sons and fathers, then experience is possible only on the condition of resurrection, sons cannot live without fathers, and therefore they must live only for the resurrection of fathers, and this is all.”

Nikolai Fedorovich Fedorov worked almost all his life as a modest librarian. He lived in a closet, ate bread and tea, and distributed the remaining money to poor students. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, Fedorov could advise the right book in almost any specialty. For a modest lifestyle, a deep mind and extensive knowledge, he was nicknamed the "Moscow Socrates." People of various views spoke with enthusiasm about his personality and his ideas, including Leo Tolstoy, who is proud that he lives at the same time as Fedorov, and Dostoevsky.

Fedorov is considered the founder of Russian cosmism. His views are set forth in the book speaking name"Philosophy of the common cause". He believed that main goal humanity must be the resurrection of all people who have ever lived.

He called his teaching "New Easter". Moreover, Fedorov understood resurrection and subsequent immortality not only in the spiritual, but also in the physical sense, on the basis of scientific achievements.

To ensure eternal life, it will be necessary to carry out the regulation of nature, and for the resettlement of all the resurrected, the exploration of outer space will be required. Apparently, these views of his influenced Tsiolkovsky, who knew Fedorov in his youth.

Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842–1921)

Anarchist prince

“If you want, as we do, that the complete freedom of the individual and his life be respected, you will involuntarily be forced to reject the dominion of man over man, of whatever kind it may be.”

Prince Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin was the offspring of one of the most distinguished Russian families. However, he decisively broke with his environment, becoming a revolutionary and the actual creator of the teachings of anarcho-communism. Kropotkin was not limited to revolutionary activities and philosophy: he was a prominent geographer, we owe the term "permafrost" to him. He left his mark in other sciences. Kropotkin's lifestyle made him one of the highest moral authorities of his time.

Kropotkin dreamed of the reign of stateless communism on Earth, because every state is an instrument of violence.

In his opinion, history is a struggle between two traditions: power and freedom. He considered the real engines of progress not competition and the struggle for existence, but mutual assistance and cooperation. Kropotkin accepted Darwin's theory, interpreting it in a peculiar way not as a struggle between individuals, but as a struggle between species, where the advantage is given to the kind within which mutual assistance reigns. He supported his conclusions with numerous examples taken both from the animal world and from human history.

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov (1853–1900)

Sofia Knight

“In order to properly exercise the good, it is necessary to know the truth; in order to do what one must, one must know what is.

Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov, the son of a famous historian, began to study at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, but quickly became disillusioned with the natural sciences and switched to philosophy. At the age of 22, he was already giving university lectures on it. However, measured teaching life was not for him. Solovyov traveled a lot, lived, for the most part, with friends and acquaintances, dressed and ate as he had to, and had many strange habits. Despite his amorousness and admiration for femininity, he never started a family. Several times he had a vision of Sophia, divine wisdom, the Soul of the world, and these mystical experiences had a strong influence on him. Solovyov was not only a philosopher, but also a poet, and is considered the forerunner of symbolism.

Already the titles of Solovyov's main philosophical works - "Justification of the Good", "The Meaning of Love" characterize the direction of his thought in the best possible way.

The main meaning of love, according to Solovyov, is the creation of a new person, and first of all, it means the spiritual, and not the physical component.

The philosopher dreamed of the unification of mankind on the basis of Christianity (the path to this lay through the reunification of churches). The ultimate goal of history for him is God-manhood and the final victory of Good. He assigned the leading role in this process to Russia.

Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov (1856–1919)

"The exponent of forever himself"

“Whatever I did, whatever I said or wrote, directly or especially indirectly, I spoke and thought, in fact, only about God.”

Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov is one of the most controversial Russian thinkers. He believed that for each object you need to have 1000 points of view, and only then you can catch the "coordinates of reality." Sometimes he wrote about the same event under different pseudonyms with opposite positions. This extremely prolific writer and journalist described himself as "an exponent of himself forever" and loved to describe the smallest movements and vibrations of his soul.

In his philosophy, Rozanov put himself in the place of a "little religious man" facing the most serious questions. One of the main themes of his reflections was the problem of sex.

He believed that "the mystery of being is actually the mystery of being born, that is, that it is the mystery of the birth of sex." Such attention to the sexual issue aroused ridicule from colleagues, and Losev even called him "a master of sexual affairs."

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935)

space seer

"The earth is the cradle of the mind, but you can't live forever in the cradle."

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky is a great Russian self-taught scientist. As a child, he lost his hearing, but despite this, he continued his education, becoming a teacher of physics and mathematics. All his life he dreamed of flying into space, and that's it. free time gave experiments and theoretical work on aerodynamics and jet propulsion. He theoretically substantiated the possibility of space flights and pointed out ways to implement them. Konstantin Eduardovich achieved recognition of his ideas only towards the end of his life.

Tsiolkovsky is known primarily as the founder of astronautics, a pioneer of rocket technology, but the scientist himself noted that for him "a rocket is a means, not an end."

He believed that humanity should master the entire outer space, spreading the mind throughout the universe. At the same time, the higher forms of life “painlessly eliminate” the lower ones in order to save them from suffering.

According to Tsiolkovsky, each atom is endowed with sensitivity and the ability to perceive: in inorganic matter it sleeps, and in organic matter it experiences the same joys and sufferings as the body as a whole. Reason contributes to happiness, so on high level development "all these incarnations subjectively merge into one subjectively continuous beautiful and endless life." According to Tsiolkovsky, the evolution of humanity continues, and over time it will move into a radiant phase, a purely energy state, will live in interplanetary space, “to know everything and desire nothing.” After that, "the cosmos will turn into a great perfection."

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945)

The discoverer of the noosphere

“A thinking and working person is the measure of everything. He is a huge planetary phenomenon.

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky was a type of universal scientist. His scientific interests were extremely broad, from geology to history. Not content with this, he created a new science, biogeochemistry. Vernadsky was no stranger to political activity either: he was a prominent member of the Cadets party, was a member of State Council, and later - to the Provisional Government, stood at the origins of the creation of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and was its first president. Despite his non-communist views, he enjoyed great prestige in the Soviet Union.

The main achievement of Vernadsky as a philosopher is the doctrine of the biosphere, the totality of all life on Earth, and its transition to the stage of the noosphere, the kingdom of the mind.

The prerequisites for its appearance are the resettlement of mankind throughout the planet, the creation of a single information system, public governance and the involvement of everyone in scientific activity. Having reached this stage, humanity will be able to control natural processes. These ideas are set forth in his work Scientific Thought as a Planetary Phenomenon.

Nikolai Onufrievich Lossky (1870–1965)

"Ideal Realist"

“The evil that reigns in our lives can only harm those individuals who are themselves stained with the guilt of selfishness.”

Nikolai Onufrievich Lossky, a famous religious philosopher, was once expelled from the gymnasium ... for promoting atheism. In his youth, he traveled a lot, studied abroad and even served for a while in the French Foreign Legion. Subsequently, Lossky came to Christianity, and after the revolution, along with many colleagues, he was expelled from Russia for his views. Abroad, he led a fairly prosperous life, teaching at various universities and having international recognition.

Lossky, one of the founders of intuitionism, called his teaching "ideal-realism".

According to his concept, the world is a single whole, and a person, as an organic part of this world, is able to directly contemplate the object of knowledge "in its inviolable authenticity."

Formally remaining Orthodox Christian, Lossky, however, adhered to the theory of the pre-existence of the soul before birth and its posthumous reincarnation. In addition, he believed that all beings (including the Devil) are subject to resurrection and salvation.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924)

Philosopher - practitioner

“Human thinking by its very nature is able to give and gives us absolute truth, which is made up of the sum of relative truths.

There is no point in dwelling in detail on the biography of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin), everyone knows it. One has only to note that he was not only a revolutionary and a statesman, but also a major philosopher, and his activities stemmed from his philosophical views.

The basis of Lenin's philosophy is dialectical materialism. All our knowledge is a reflection of the reality of varying degrees of certainty, and the natural sciences and philosophy are inextricably linked. Marxism, in his opinion, "is the rightful successor to the best that humanity created in the 19th century in the form of German philosophy, English political economy, French socialism."

The main theme of his philosophical works is the transition from one historical formation to another and the possibility of building a just communist society.

Lenin formulated classical condition revolution: "Only when the 'lower classes' do not want the old and when the 'tops' cannot continue in the old way, only then can the revolution win." The most important role in such transitions, in his opinion, belongs not to individuals, but to the advanced class as a whole.

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov (1871–1944)

"Religious Materialist"

“Faith is a completely independent ability of the spirit, which is unequally distributed among people. There are talents and geniuses of faith.”

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov was fond of Marxism in his youth. Subsequently, he switched to the position of Christian socialism, and in this capacity was even elected to the State Duma. During the revolutionary years, Bulgakov came to traditional Orthodoxy and became a priest. However, then, already in exile, he created within the framework of Orthodoxy his own doctrine of Sophia, the wisdom of God, condemned by the Moscow Patriarchate.

Bulgakov defined his worldview as "religious materialism".

At the center of his philosophy is the doctrine of Sophia. The Divine Sophia, through a mystical act, becomes the Creature Sophia, the basis of the material world.

The Earth – “all-matter, because everything is potentially contained in it” – becomes the Mother of God, ready to accept the Logos and give birth to the God-man. In this Bulgakov saw true purpose matter.

Nicholas Konstantinovich Roerich (1874–1947)

Russian Maharishi

“The heart beats incessantly, just as constant is the pulse of thought. Man either creates or destroys. If thought is energy and does not decay, then how responsible is humanity for every thought!

Nicholas Roerich in the first half of his life was known mainly as an artist and archaeologist. Over time, he became more and more interested in the culture and religion of the East. After meeting with the mysterious spiritual teacher, whom Roerich called the "Mahatma of the East", he began to create his teaching "Agni Yoga". Roerich became the author of the pact for the protection of cultural property (known as the Roerich Pact), which later formed the basis of the Hague Convention. Last years Roerich spent his life in India, where he was deeply revered.

In his writings, Roerich tried to combine Western and Eastern esoteric traditions and teachings.

There is a constant struggle going on in the world between the Hierarchy of Light and the Hierarchy of Darkness. Great philosophers, founders of religions, spiritual teachers are the incarnations of the hierarchs of Light.

A person should strive to move to higher forms of existence, the path to which lies through spiritual self-improvement. Special attention in the teachings of Roerich, it is given to the rejection of not only evil deeds, but also thoughts. The most important means of education is art, which, according to Roerich, will unite humanity.

Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874–1948)

Philosopher of freedom

"Knowledge is compulsory, faith is free."

Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev, who came from a wealthy family, adhered to Marxist philosophy in his youth, was close to revolutionary circles, and even ended up in exile. However, he then returned to Orthodoxy, and the direction that he took philosophical thought can be called religious existentialism. After the revolution, to which he was sympathetic, Berdyaev was expelled from Russia on a "philosophical ship". Abroad, he was the editor of the philosophical journal "The Way" and united around him the left-wing Christian youth, who, like him, dreamed of uniting communist and Christian ideas. Because of such views, he parted ways with most of the Russian emigrants. Berdyaev was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, but never received it.

Berdyaev himself called his philosophy "the philosophy of freedom."

According to his views, Freedom is a manifestation of primary chaos, and even God, who created an ordered world, has no power over it.

That is why a person himself is responsible for his actions, and evil comes from himself, and not from God. Another major theme of his quest is the historical path of Russia. He outlined his thoughts about it in the book "Russian Idea".

Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky (1882–1937)

priest scientist

“Man is the sum of the World, an abbreviated summary of it; The world is the revelation of Man, his projection.

Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky harmoniously combined studies in the natural sciences and a deep religious faith. He received a physical and mathematical education, but after graduating from the university he decided to become a priest. After the revolution, he had to recall natural science knowledge and skills. He took part in the development of the GOELRO plan. True, some of his studies were of a curious nature: in the work "Imaginations in Geometry" he tried to return to the geocentric system of the world and even determined the boundary between heaven and Earth. In 1933 Florensky was arrested. Already in prison, he conducted research on construction in permafrost conditions, and on Solovki he studied the possibilities of using seaweed. Despite important scientific achievements, in 1937 Florensky was shot.

Florensky's main philosophical work is "The Pillar and Ground of Truth". As a philosopher, he saw his task as "laying the path to a future integral worldview" that unites science and religion. An important part of Florensky's philosophical views is imyaslavie. He believed that “The Name of God is God; but God is not a name,” and in general he gave words a special, sacred meaning.

Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin (1882–1954)

White ideologue

"The meaning of life is to love, create and pray."

Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin was among those expelled from Russia on the "philosophical ship" in 1922. Abroad, he began to conduct active political activities, and became one of the ideologists of the odious Russian All-Military Union, which set as its goal the "liberation of Russia." Ilyin, who had a negative attitude towards both Bolshevism and bourgeois democracy, openly sympathizing with fascism. “What did Hitler do? He stopped the process of the Bolshevization of Germany and thereby rendered the greatest service to Europe,” he wrote in 1933.

After the war, he admitted that Hitler and Mussolini "compromised fascism", but continued to be sympathetic to the Francoist and kindred regimes.

Interest in Ilyin's writings revived in Russia in the 1990s. His ideas are popular in conservative and religious circles. In 2005, the ashes of Ilyin were transported to their homeland and buried in the Donskoy Monastery in Moscow.

Philosophy according to Ilyin is an empirical science. According to his concept, a person, cognizing the objective world, also cognizes the ideas embedded in it, and, thus, cognizes God. Philosophy and religion are also ways of knowing God through abstract concepts or images. God for Ilyin is the embodiment of truth, love and beauty.

Alexey Fedorovich Losev (1893–1988)

ancient sage

“It’s not enough for me to live. I also want to understand what life is.”

Alexei Fedorovich Losev was the most prominent Soviet specialist in antiquity. This area of ​​scientific interest was relatively safe at a time when a careless word could be very expensive. Nevertheless, after the publication of the book "Dialectics of Myth", he ended up on the White Sea Canal for several years.

Losev, a student and follower of Florensky, was a deeply religious person; together with his wife, they took secret monastic vows.

The philosopher was almost blind, he distinguished only light and darkness, but this did not prevent him from creating about 800 scientific papers.

About our philosophical views Losev began to speak openly only towards the end of his long life. Following Florensky, he was a supporter of imyaslavie. The name, the Logos for him was "the original essence of the world." Losev's multi-volume "History of Ancient Aesthetics" forced experts to take a fresh look at antiquity and classical Greek philosophy.

Alexander Alexandrovich Zinoviev (1922–2006)

Eternal dissident

“We need a dream, a hope, a utopia. Utopia is a great discovery. If people do not invent a new, seemingly useless utopia, they will not survive as people.”

Alexander Alexandrovich Zinoviev was a dissident with young years. While still a student, he joined an anti-Stalinist underground organization and miraculously escaped arrest. Subsequently, already when he was a well-known logician and philosopher, he published in the West the satirical book “Yawning Heights”, ridiculing the Soviet system, and was forced to leave the USSR. Once abroad, Zinoviev soon became disillusioned with Western values ​​and began to criticize capitalism, consumer society and globalization no less sharply than socialism in his time. He was very upset by the processes that began to take place in our country after perestroika, and he saw them, in part, as the fault of the dissidents: “They aimed at communism, but ended up in Russia.” At the end of his life, Zinoviev returned to his homeland, believing that he could not "be in the camp of those who destroy my people and my country."

In academic circles, Zinoviev is known primarily as an outstanding logician and methodologist of science. However, real fame was brought to him by artistic and journalistic writings in which he studies the patterns of functioning and development of human society. To describe it, Zinoviev introduced the concept of "human life": on the one hand, it constitutes a single whole, and on the other, its members have a certain freedom. The human life evolves from a pre-society through a society to a super-society.

"Ideal" Marxist

Evald Vasilyevich Ilyenkov (1924–1979)

"True reason is always moral."

Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov was a Marxist in his convictions, but throughout almost his entire scientific career he was criticized for idealism. His book "Dialectics of the Ideal" still causes fierce controversy. He paid a lot of attention to the problems of education and upbringing, believing that the school does not teach children to think enough.

Ilyenkov became one of the developers of the methodology for teaching the deaf-blind, using which these people can lead a full life.

In the work "Cosmology of Spirit" Ilyenkov gives his own answer about the meaning of life. In his opinion, the main task of intelligent beings is to resist entropy, world chaos. Another important topic of his reflections was the study of the concept of "ideal". According to his concept, we study the real world to the extent that it is ideally expressed in our thinking.

The name of the Chinese religious philosopher Kung Tsu (and also Kung Fu Tzu, Tzu - "teacher") was transformed by the first European missionaries of China into Confucius. Over time, the state religion of China began to be called Confucianism. Various legends were composed about Kunfucii, claiming that he was born in a cave, dragons flew around him, from which he received wisdom. It was said that with his knowledge as a child, he overshadowed the most eminent sages. Confucius taught all his life that the state is a big family, and the family is a small state. He preached respect for elders, humility and obedience.

Protagoras (c. 490-420 BC)

The ancient Greek philosopher and thinker Protagoras, supposedly a native of the Greek village of Abdera in Thrace, was the most famous educator and teacher of that time, they were called sophists, which meant "lovers of wisdom." He not only taught his students the world and his phenomena, but also aroused their interest in his study. He argued that there is no objective truth, but only a subjective opinion, and man is the measure of all things.

Socrates (c. 470-399 BC)

In ancient Greece there were no more famous philosopher than Socrates. The son of a simple stonemason and an ordinary midwife was considered smartest person, and for a long time remained a kind of "attraction" of Athens. He was valued for his logic, for his precise reasoning, even for his strange appearance. He could become rich, but he himself rejected wealth. He also rejected fame, lived more than modestly, and seemed to many an eccentric. He did not write down his reasoning - this was done for him by his numerous students and followers. The main sources of our knowledge about Socrates are the "Dialogues" of his student Plato and the memoirs of the historian Xenophon.

Plato (c. 429-347 BC)

In his writings, the philosopher Plato wrote a lot about the ideal state, which, as he was sure, could be created according to fair laws. He dreamed of bringing his ideas to life, he was looking for a ruler who would agree to this. But he did not find such a ruler and created his own philosophical school called the Academy. It has existed for almost a thousand years. Subsequent scientists studied the philosophical concept of the world of Plato, admired the logic of his reasoning. His most famous book "Republic" is still being studied in higher educational institutions lawyers, philosophers and sociologists.

5Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Aristotle, like no ancient Greek philosopher, was universal. He studied not only the world around him, nature, the properties of things, but also the development of society. He, a favorite student of Plato, did not share the idealistic views of his teacher and argued that any thing is characterized by quantity, quality, attitude towards other things and its own mode of action. The material world is material. Gradually, he introduced a system of scientific classification, created his own terminology, which is still used today. In the work "Poetics", Aristotle first noted that the peculiarity of literature is that it reflects reality, therefore it has a psychological impact on the reader.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037)

The famous medieval philosopher, poet and physician Ibn Sina (his full name is Abu Ali Hussein ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina) received the Latin name Avicenna in Europe. He served as a court physician, and then as a vizier to the Iranian Sultan. Like Aristotle, he was a universal scientist who created over 400 works in many fields of science. Only 274 works have survived to our time. His main work- The Canon of Medicine - received recognition in many countries and was translated into different languages. It has not lost its significance even today - in it, doctors find a description of many medicinal herbs.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant was noted for his rare constancy in everything. It can be called a slave of his own habits. The Germans themselves were surprised at the punctuality of this scientist. He had breakfast, lunch and dinner at a strictly defined time, he was never late for anything and never left his native Konigsberg anywhere. He was completely immersed in scientific research. Kant was convinced that human knowledge begins with experience, but a person cannot fully know the world. His teaching was later formed into a separate section of philosophy, called "Kantianism", and his works had a huge impact on the development of all world philosophy.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche considered himself more of a musician than a philosopher. He was very fond of music, he composed it himself, idolized the works of Richard Wagner, with whom he was friends. But still, not music, but his paradoxical arguments about religion, morality, and the culture of society left their mark on the history of the 20th century. They had a significant impact on the formation of the latest philosophical trends - existentialism and postmodernism. The name of Nietzsche is associated with the birth of the theory of negation - nihilism. He also gave rise to a trend that was later called Nietzscheism, which spread at the beginning of the 20th century, both in Europe and in Russia.

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